(hostis). While Decimus Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, Octavianus, now sole commander of the army which was originally the army of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his appointment to the consulship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the conspirators, and their sentence (lex Pedia). This accomplished, he took the field, in appearance, against Antonius, with whom he already had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was abandoned by his troops, captured upon his flight, and put to death at Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 43. The Second Triumvirate was formed Nov. avowedly for the "Organization of the State" (triumviri reipublica constituenda) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus, the former magister equitum of Cæsar. This new assumption of power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. New proscriptions; several hundred senators and 2000 equites outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The triumvirs began 43-42. War against the republican party and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Brutus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolabella in Syria and driven him to commit suicide. In the 42. Battle of Philippi in Thrace, Antonius, who commanded the right wing, defeated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while Brutus with the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavianus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius caused one of his slaves to put him to death. Brutus, being defeated by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself. Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then followed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out the promised allotments of land among the veterans. Quarrels between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 41-40. Civil war of Perusia between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavianus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul and Spain, while Lepidus was put off with the government of Africa. Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided between the triumvirs, so that 40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepidus Africa. 39. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who had created a naval empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut off the grain supplies from Rome. By the treaty of Misenum Sextus Pompeius received Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica (?) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reimbursement for the loss of his paternal property. Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part with Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Parthians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in person (36), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 38-36. Sicilian war between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Octavianus, abandoned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone at first, and suffered great loss at sea. A difference between Octavianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, and Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against Sextus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got the upper hand of Sextus, especially since M. Vipsanius Agrippa commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa at Myla, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily, demanded this island for himself. Abandoned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, who permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sent him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa vianus. 35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpine tribes, the Dalmatians, and the Illyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alexandria. New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter presented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a popular decree removing Antonius from his command and declaring war upon Cleopatra. 31-30. War between Octavian and Antonius, also called Bellum Actiacum. During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesus, Athens, and at Patra in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleopatra, which outnumbered it, in the 31. Battle of Actium, Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered to Octavianus without a blow. 30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth consulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched through Syria to Egypt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, killed himself on hear ing a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced that Octavian spared her only that she might grace his triumph in Rome, poisoned herself. Octavianus made Egypt a Roman province. Octavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Cæsar (p. 143). 29. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history.1 FIFTH PERIOD. Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the Western Empire.2 B. C. A. D. 31 (30) B. C. 476 A. D. 31-68. The five Julii, or the descendants of Cæsar's adopted son, 31-14. Cæsar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Sublime), which was given Octavianus by the senate in 27 B. C., is the name by which, as sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known; it also became, like Princeps, Cæsar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the Roman sovereigns. In later times Casar became a peculiar designation of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. 3 Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held for a series of years by the imperator; sometimes granted, as a special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). The præfectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the præfectus prætorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine (afterwards ten) prætorian cohorts, became the most important officers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising those quiet provinces which could be administered without an army (Africa, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta, with Cyrenaica, Bithynia, Sardinia, Hispania Batica), and imperial, including those where an army was maintained, and which were administered by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusitania; the four provinces of Gaul: Narbonensis, Lugdunensis, Aquitania, and Belgica; Germania superior et inferior, Masia, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, Egyptus). Aerarium and Fiscus. Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Mœcenas († B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets: P. Vergilius Maro (70–19 B. c.), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65–8 B. c.) ; 1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [TRANS.] 2 Peter, Röm. Gesch. III.3, 1871, and Röm. Gesch. in kürzerer Fassung, 2d ed. 1878, p. 475 foll. a Princeps was, it is true, not an official title. About the meaning of this designation and its relation to the dignity of the Princeps senatus, see Marquardt-Mommsen, Rom. Alth. II.2, 2, p. 750 foll. 4 Later many changes were made in this division. All provinces created after 27 B. C. were assigned to the emperor. the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-54 B. C.), Albius Tibullus (54-19 B. C. ?), S. Propertius (49–15 b. c. ?); P. Ovidius Naso (born 43 B. C., 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinus, † 17). The historian T. Livius (59 B. C.-17 a. D.) Family of Augustus. C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 B. c., † 14 a. D. 1. Claudia. 1. Marcellus, son of Octavia. † B. C. 23. Gaius Cæsar. † A. D. 4. Married: Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria because of her excesses. Gaius Caesar and Lucius Cæsar were adopted by Augustus B. C. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, was adopted by Augustus, A. D. 4. 29. Masia subjugated (made a province in 16 B. C.?). 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sickness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. Elius Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prætoria (Aosta). 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dignity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Petronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Phraates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe rius. 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cantabri and Astures. 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary of Italy to the Danube, Rætia was made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg) and Noricum. 12-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 27), Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper, and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus died upon the way back. 8-7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the command, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine to recognize the supremacy of Rome. Birth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our era?). 6-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Marbod was interrupted by an insurrection of the Illyrian and Pannonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a severe contest. 10. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman province. 9(?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated in the Teutoburg forest, by Arminius (Hermann ?), a leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. Lex Papia Poppaa and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 14. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a suspicious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from the comitia to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sovereign. Rewards given to informers (delatores). Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annales. I. 16-49). 14-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. Roman On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed 17. Germanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tiberius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poison, administered by Piso ?). 23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. 23. By uniting the prætorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus 27. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprea (Capri). |