Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes?) 480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selinus, against the other Greek cities in Sicily.

The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was utterly defeated and scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse (Zvpákovσai) and Theron of Agrigentum ('Akpayas).

The Carthaginians purchased peace for 2000 talents, thereby saving their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Solais, Motye.

409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily.

The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta (Eyeora) against Selinus, after conquering Selinus, Himera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timoleon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge them.

332. Capture of the island city, New Tyre, by Alexander the Great after a seven months' siege.

Phoenicia became a part of the great Græco-Macedonian monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidæ, and for a time of that of the Ptolemies.

317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily.

Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged Syracuse. Agathocles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans repulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syracuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; his army, which he left before Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Carthaginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306).

After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his severity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a Carthaginian fleet (276).

Geography: Lydia, in the strict sense, or Mæonia, was the middle one of the three divisions of Asia Minor lying on the Egean Sea, the northern being Mysia, the southern Caria. Rivers: Hermus, Caystrus,

Pactolus (golden-sand) in Lydia; Maander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: Sardes at the base of the Tmolus range. The Lydians belonged to the Semitic race, like the Cilicians, and probably the Carians, whereas the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans.

The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent reached to the Halys river (now the Kisil Irmak), and included, beside the countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), and the inland country of Phrygia.

Religion: Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses Bla (Mylitta-Ashera) and Ma (Astarte). The last two became united in one goddess, under the name "the great mother” (Cybele), who was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis (Diana).

Chronology: Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynasties, the Attyada from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), and the Sandonida, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229– 724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and called this dynasty, therefore, the Heraclida. The last king of this line, Candaules, was murdered (6891) by his favorite Gyges in collusion with the king's consort. With Gyges the

689 2-549 (?). Dynasty of the Mermnadæ came to the throne. Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffering severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two successors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war with the Grecian cities on the sea coast.

Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnada, warred with Cyazăres, king of Media, with success.

610 (?). Indecisive battle between Alyattes and Cyazăres. Eclipse of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty of peace the Halys was made the boundary between the Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxures. Alyattes subdued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the remaining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal tombs north of Sardes.

563-549 (?). Croesus, Son of Alyattes,

captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities of the coast, Ionian, Eolian, and Dorian, with the exception of Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the ambiguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Indecisive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Cræsus returned 1 Eusebius, 699; Herodotus, 719.

2 Duncker, Hist. of Antiq., III. 414, note 2.

irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who defeated him in a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Cræsus prisoner (see p. 26).

549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united with the Persian empire.

Phrygians.

750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in N. W. Phrygia, having its capital at Gordicum. Its monarchs, the dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordias and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyattes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Cræsus (570–560). Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.)

§ 6. INDIANS. Aryan.

Geography: India, the central peninsula of the three which project from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geographical divisions: I. The region of the Himalayas. The central range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of the Nágá, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Sulaiman, and the Halas separate India from Afghánistán and Baluchistán, but are pierced by the Indus River, the Khaibar Pass (3373 ft.), and the Bolán Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Himalayas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the five streams, Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rájputána; cities: Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad); Bramaputra (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. III. The Deccan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges valley by the Vindhyά mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of Bengal. Provinces: Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc.

1

Religion: The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature: Dyaush-pitar, Father of Heaven; Varuna, the sky; Indra, the rain-vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this primitive faith underwent a change.

History: The Indians (Hindus) migrating from the northwest, came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges,

1 Indus, Ihelum, Chenaub, Ravi, Sutlej (modern names).

where they were probably established as early as 1500 B. C. The native tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the S. (Dravidians). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts of the Deccan and reached Ceylon.

Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated aborigines. Development of the royal power and of the priestly influence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kshattriyas, warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure Aryan descent. The Súdras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal descent, the Dásas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith into the religion of Erahma: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- . mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the Vedas ("revelations"), or services for the various religious ceremonials: Rig-Veda, the simplest form; Sama-Veda; Yayur-Veda (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one being attached to each Veda. Â second series of additions were the Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-bharata, Ramayana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accordance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) gathered together into the book of the laws of Manu, being, as it was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Prescriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the second birth.

Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and below the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas.

In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. "the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Siddhartha (i. e. "he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Suddhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a philosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essential equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism.

The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes in the old system, a strong Brahmanistic reaction. The war of the religions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It maintained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc.

327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and his grandson,

263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of Açoka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Græco-Bactrian

empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dynasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya against the Scythians (57 B. C.?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings, who were succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the Hindus of the south. In the

78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated and are henceforward not mentioned.

The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the fifth century A. D.

§ 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan.

Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the plateau of Iran,1 between the Suláimán range on the E. and the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea on the N., and the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the western border of this highland: Media (Ecbatana, Med. Hangmatana, i. e. 66 place of assemblies "); on the southern border along the Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargada, Persepolis), Carmania; on the Erythræan sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the Paropanisădæ, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu Koosh); 2 on the northern border, Bactria or Bactriana (Baktra), Parthia and Hyrcania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, Aria and Drangiana; between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda).

East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana (the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to the south and west.

About 1000 (?). Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doctrine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered against the Daeva," the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as set forth in the Avesta is the conception of a continuous warfare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahuramazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the evil spirits, or Daëva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in modern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in

1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II.

2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39.

8 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence Zend avesta, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people.