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1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the colony should remain subject to Scotland.

1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30′ to 55°10′ in vain, but discovered Fox's Channel and reached Cape Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a terrible winter.

1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Cession of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France.

1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death of Champlain.

1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal; in 1642 he brought over several families and took possession of the island.

§ 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMATION.

1493-1514. Maximilian I.,

who first took the title of "Roman Emperor elect." 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Chamber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Landfriedenskreise): Circle of : 1. Austria; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Swabia; 4. Franconia; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.); 6. the Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne); 7. Burgundy (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg); 8. Westphalia; 9. Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Lüneburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Mecklenburg, etc.); 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomerania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles.

Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted.

Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milan. 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XII., Pope

Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maximilian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from the league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by Maximilian (p. 319).

The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house of Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line.

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Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (king of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip himself inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Burgundian Lands; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the Hapsburgs (Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife was Mary, Ferdinand's sister).1

1517. Beginning of the Reformation.

Luther.

Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, became master of arts and instructor 1505; monk in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1510 sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by Zwingli at Zürich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531.

Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaëta (Cajetanus), Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the Pope.2

Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion at Leipzig 1519 (Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings.

1 These fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the following couplet :

Bella gerant alii, tu felix Austria, nube !
Quæ dat Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus.
2 De Papa male informato ad Papam melius informandum.

Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law; whereupon he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor.

1519-1556. Charles V.

He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the purpose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's translation of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in German and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany and was occupied with the war with Francis I.

Franz von Sickingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reformation. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, accompanied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The peasants defeated at Königshofen on the Tauber and cruelly punished. Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas Münzer captured at Frankenhausen and executed.

Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship.

Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Catechism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, educated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the government of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of Torgau was formed (1626) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, Lüneburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They procured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine (1526).

1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I.

Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza (1522). The French Connétable, Charles of Bourbon, transferred his allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard ("sans peur et sans reproche") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan.

1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan,

Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and gave his sons as hostages.

1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., who had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Francis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under the constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Benvenuto Cellini?); the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa (Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France.

1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the

fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angoulême, mother of Francis. Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, Flanders and Artois; Charles promised not to press his claims upon Burgundy for the present, and released the French princes. 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 1526-1532. War with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter was assisted by the Sultan Soliman (Suleiman), who besieged Vienna in vain (1529).

1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in person. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confessio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schwarzerd, 1497–1560), the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet commanded the abolition of all innovations.

1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the maFeb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities.

Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of the new danger which threatened from the Turks,

1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was

revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a year.

Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Günz. A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman

retired.

1534-1535. Anabaptists in Münster (Johann Bockelsohn, from Leyden). 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, Ulrich of Würtemberg, who had been driven out (1519) by the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Ferdinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to a compact, whereby he was to renounce Würtemberg, but should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical party. 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the pirate). Tunis conquered; liberation of all Christian slaves. 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about

Milan; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles invaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. The war was ended by the

1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of possesJune 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years.

July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress

ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privileges.

1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1534), approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread of the Reformation.

1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cauvin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his eighteenth year, resigned his office; studied law at Orléans and Bourges; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding protection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christianæ religionis 1535; 1536-1538 in Geneva; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, afterwards head of the state in Geneva, † 1564). From Geneva the Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, driven from the country by the Schmalkaldic League.

1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occasioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served as a pretext.

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