1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabrück with the Swedes; 1644 in Münster with the French.

Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Condé, appointed commandersin-chief of the French troops. They forced the

1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Condé captured Mannheim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppenheim, Mainz, and Landau.

Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenson and Königsmark, purJan. sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jankau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. May. Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran

conia.

Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the Bavarians at Allersheim.

Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Brömsebro (p. 352).

After a futile siege of Brünn, the plague having broken out in his army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish

troops under Königsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian to conclude the

1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor. after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the truce and joined the imperialists again.

1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes; terrible ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish general Königsmark captured that part of Prague on the right bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite).

Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and wealth. Reduction of population; increase of poverty; retrogradation in all ranks.

1648. Peace of Westphalia.

Oct. 24.

Negotiations from 1643-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count Trautmannsdorf and Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia tions.

Conditions of the Peace.1

A. Indemnifications.

1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither Pomerania and Rügen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, Garz, Damm, Gollnow, Wollin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes.

2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty: the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 1552; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgravate of upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (præfectura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowledgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of garrisoning Philippsburg.

3. Hesse-Cassel: abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars.

4. Brandenburg as indemnification for Pomerania which belonged to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it received the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the archbishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, during his life († 1680).

5. Mecklenburg: the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg as principalities.

6. Brunswick alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osnabrück, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate.

B. Secular Affairs of the Empire.

1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittelsbach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Rudolfian line (Palatinate).

3. The territorial superiority (Landeshoheit) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and with foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg developed the German constitution more in detail.)

4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247).

1 K. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats- u. Rechtsgeschichte, iv. § 522 foll.

C. Ecclesiastical Affairs (Gravamina ecclesiastica).

1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists.

2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire.

3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they 'were to remain forever; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Protestants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Würtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion which had been theirs in 1618. The jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the religion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free exercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics.

France and Sweden guaranteed the peace.

§ 5. FRANCE.

1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angoulême.

Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380.

obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI., and married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500).

1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Aragon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples.

1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat

ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew of Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) by storm (Bayard, "without reproach or fear"), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 5000 German mercenaries, in the same year; they were, however, compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Guinegate, called the "Battle of the Spurs" from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French.

France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousin, the Count of Angoulême, who had married Claudia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angoulême is known as

1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dissolute.

1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and

alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515); treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The latter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king; the Pope on the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an ecumenical council. 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh

borhood of Calais. "Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Persecutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son

1547-1559. Henry II.

Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis, duke of Guise, and Charles, "Cardinal of Lorraine ").