and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of jurisdiction. Human sacrifices. Civilization: That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an advanced stage of civilization is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Cæsar exhibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neustrian state under the Merowingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries B. C. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Brythonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made in central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiberians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodotus in the fifth century B. C. 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 B. C. Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied (Gallia Cisalpina). Tribes: Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and Verona), Boi (Bologna), Senones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. military leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans; defeat of the 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. The stage of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic migration had made itself felt in the west, but the details of the conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province (Gallia Narbonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113–101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Cæsar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. b. Celts of the British Isles. BRITAIN. Geography: The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith of Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numerous small lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion: hilly in the N. and W.; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers: Humber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsweald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hainault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization: The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civilization, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in customs and religion. Druids. Bards. History. a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile imagination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history enabled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (A. M.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain until 2896 A. M. or 1108 B. C., when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of Eneas of Troy. Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud's Town, London. He was followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladud, founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (496-491), with whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into five kingdoms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left his island home to sack Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of Galatia. Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (160-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Cæsar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigern (445-455 (485) A. D.). Arthur (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the kings and princes of Wales. b. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain: a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many centuries, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Cæsar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes: Canti, the most civilized, Attrebati, Belgæ, Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. C. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. C. The two expeditions of Cæsar, the actual history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and his generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from Delphi; his army settled in Galatia. 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which the new religion spread through out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York (?). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,1 the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. A 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The withdrawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads followed, broken by the 411. "Alleluia Victory" of the Britons accompanied by St. Germanus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigen), either by usurpation or election, obtained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquerors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography: Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel; on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with hilly tracks upon the coast; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrib, L. Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree), and rivers (Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon). Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic culture, but both in a still more primitive form than in England; so much so, indeed, that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. History: Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly invention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ireland. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 1 Comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lappenberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies? A reference to our "Indian Frontier," by which is meant land held by the whites but molested by Indians, might dispel this objection. The argument from coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be proved. Ireland 300 years, and then died of the plague, and were succeeded by II. Nemed, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Firbolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various parts of the island. IV. The Tuatha Dé Danann, of the race of Nemed, who defeated and nearly exterminated the Firbolgs. V. Milesians or Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and conquering the Tuatha De Danann, divided Ireland among the sons and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts (Cruithni, Picts); in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes (Cymric), and in the southwest (Munster) by a people of southern extraction (Iberians?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary history is filled. Tuathal (died 160 A. D.), a powerful king who reigned over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Britain: Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladius, sent to Ireland, 431 A. D., died soon after. St. Patrick (Succath or Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next century attained wide renown for the learning of their members. § 2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ‘Exλás) bounded N. by Macedonia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare Egaum, S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into four principal regions: Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus. A. Peloponnesus († Пeλomóvvnσos, Island of Pelops), connected with the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine districts: 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by Ionians, in twelve communities, or cantons. Ægium, capital of the confederacy, Patræ. 2. Elis or Eleia, in Æolic dialect, Vālis, drained by the Alpheus and Penius. It is subdivided into Elis Proper, or Hollow Elis: Elis and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis: Olympia, not a city but a temple of Zeus, in a walled grove ("AλTIS), with places for games, altars, and various buildings, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia: Pylos, the home of Nestor, opposite the island of Sphacteria, Messene, built in 369 B. C., the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia (Aaxwvikń), with the mountain range of Taygetus, ending in the promontory Tænǎrus: Sparta (prn), on the right bank of the Eurotas; north of Sparta, Sellasia; on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, |