for the banishment of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was executed by the minister Aranda.

Portugal.

Since 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again reached a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house of Braganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable administration, and brought into complete dependence upon England by a commercial treaty with that power. In the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel (1750-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, endeavored to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, in the same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). After the terrible

1755.

Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon,

in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pombal caused the ruined portion of the capital to be splendidly rebuilt. An unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for banishing the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the minister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was followed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The order of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sentenced to death, but pardoned.

§ 6. ITALY.

Savoy.

The dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of Utrecht, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to increase their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, by skillful use of political relations. During the war of the Austrian succession they acquired a considerable extent of land from Milan (p. 400).

Genoa.

The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her freedom and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her territory (Savoy, France, Austria). In 1730 the inhabitants of the island of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, revolted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a German adventurer, Baron Neuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time as King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the assistance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody battles (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugating the island, which the Genoese ceded to them in 1768.

Venice.

The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persistence in the old aristocratic forms, politically immired, sank into an irremediable decline. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth

century in the glorious wars against the Turks. The latter surprised Candia and conquered a part of the island (1645-1647). The Venetian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the much stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral Mocenigo, 1651, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello annihilated the Turkish fleet by the Dardanelles (1656), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at Chios, but was himself defeated in a second combat. New naval victories over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid from Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, to leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alliance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John Sobieski of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Venetians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began the conquest of the Peloponnesus (Morea) in 1685. Count Königsmark landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the peninsula. Morosini captured Athens; a Venetian bomb blew up the Parthenon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected doge, landed in Negroponte (Eubœa), but the plague in the army (Königsmark †) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowitz, 1699 (see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulated the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred of their new subjects by the rigor of their administration.

Tuscany.

Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as the influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of the Medici became extinct; the later members of this house, sunken in dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 1737, the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398); Leopold II., upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was an Austrian secundogeniture from 1765-1859.

Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for the Spanish Bourbons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859.

Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of the house of Este.

Papal States.

In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life steadily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occupied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of the great families of the nobility. Among the Popes of the eighteenth century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 1773 yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the order of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea of reform (sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redemptor

noster.

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when the

latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicily were governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual and material welfare little or nothing was done.

§ 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES.

1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the former to the latter.

1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the Spanish border by governor Craven.

1718. Captain Woods Rogers, appointed governor of New Providence, suppressed the buccaneers in the West Indies; extirpation of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of that colony.

1719-1729. Overthrow of proprietary government in Carolina. In 1719 the people of Carolina, having for some time chafed under the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly proving unruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey the proclamation; they elected a new governor and council, and opposed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Providence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported by the agent for the colony in England, the royal council declared the charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a provisional royal government; governor Nicholson (1721). In 1729 an agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest in the colony; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 1720. William Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade between the Indians and the French.

1722. In New York, governor Burnet continued his efforts to obstruct the French in their policy of hemming in the English sea-coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at Oswego; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy as a sixth nation).

1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War with the Abinakis, who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settlements, and further provoked by the advice of Rasles, a French Jesuit at Norridgewock. Futile attempt of the English to seize Rasles was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon war was declared, Norridgewock burnt and Rasles killed.

1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Spaniards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony in Carolina. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upon which he chastised the Indians.

1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involved in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained from the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power to suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of representatives might adjourn, to two days.

Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern Indians, which was long kept.

In New York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onondagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and Oneidas, which were already under English protection.

1728. Burnet governor of Massachusetts. He was at once involved in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed salary for the governor, which the court refused to grant, “because it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna Charter, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, of their own free accord, without compulsion."

The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was surveyed and settled, running through the Dismal Swamp. 1729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina (p. 417).

1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New York and Connecticut.

1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thirteen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia).

It being thought desirable that the government should secure for England the western part of Carolina in order to prevent the French or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a charter for the lands between the Savannah and Alatamaha rivers extending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees (twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, which should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Liberty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhabitants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savannah; conciliation of the Indians by just purchase of lands and by kindness. Oglethorpe refused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees declared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony.

1734. In New York arrest of Zenger, printer of the Weekly Journal, for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 1735.

1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey.

1739-1748. Great Britain at war with Spain.

1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia. Siege of St. Augustine.

Settlement of the boundary dispute between Massachusetts and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony.

Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Carthagena, broken up by disease.

1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba.

1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Georgia repulsed by Oglethorpe by stratagem. In this year Oglethorpe went to England and never returned to America.

1744-1748. War between Great Britain and France,

known in the American colonies as King George's War, in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 400).

The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec was Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, of Acadia; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under that name.

1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few English vessels.

1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the colonies prevented by the arrival of a large French fleet at Nova Scotia under D'Anville, which spread consternation throughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of D'Anville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accomplishing anything. 1747, Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the people; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the disturbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men seized.

1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between England, France, and Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests, Cape Breton was restored to the French (p. 404).

Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the
English crown, which gave great offense to the French.

1750. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to England by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, hostilities sprang up between the French and English there, owing to disputes over the boundaries.