Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of Alexander, comprising at first Russia, Austria, Prussia, theoretically an intimate union on a basis of morality and religion, but practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of absolute monarchy.

Ney made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne by landing in Calabria; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot Oct. 13, 1815.

Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris.

1. France surrendered the four fortresses Philippeville, Marienburg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis (and Saarbrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lauter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace.

2. Demolition of Hüningens, a fortress below Basle.

3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies at the expense of France.

4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the first peace, were now reclaimed.

The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strasburg, should be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of attack against Germany, was not gratified.

FOURTH PERIOD.

FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY.

1815-x.

§ 1. INVENTIONS.

The universal adoption and application of four inventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in comparison with whose influence upon the transformation of the world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, almost disappears, lends the modern world its peculiar character. [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovernment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth century, p. 279.)]

1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion were made in the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer

tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the first steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to improve the steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possible to use these machines in the most various industries, was James Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland.

2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is disputed between the French, English, and Americans. The French ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count of Auxiron, and in 1775 Périer, are said to have sailed the first little steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Doubs, and in 1780 on the Saône at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the invention is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester; it would seem, however, that the first steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Symington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first consul, Napoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French ships of war (1803).

3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to railroads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithick. Gradual improvement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an improved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad for passenger traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. The first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fürth to Nuremberg (1835), at first a horse railroad; the first larger line worked by locomotives was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass.; cars drawn by horses. First roads to use locomotives: South Carolina, Baltimore & Ohio, 1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construction of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other industries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock speculation.]

4. The first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sömmering,

a German, in Munich. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., who dismissed it as a "German notion." After the Dane, Örsted, had discovered electro-magnetism in 1819, the Frenchmen Ampère and Ritschie conceived the idea of applying the new discovery to the telegraph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually constructed and used was set up in Göttingen by Gauss and Weber in 1833. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schilling's invention was carried to England by Cooke, an Englishman. There it was improved by Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practically worked in London, between Euston Square and Camden Town. After the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Germany and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The first submarine telegraph was laid in 1850 between England and France (Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and in many other locations. The gigantic undertaking of connecting Europe and America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was crowned with success, but only for a time. In 1866 the undertaking was again renewed and brought to a successful close. (Valencia in Ireland to Newfoundland, 1,650 English miles.) Since that time, laying of a second, third, fourth, and fifth cable.

§ 2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.1

1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. Festival of the Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolutist writings (Ancillon, Schmalz, Haller, etc.).

1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu, to withdraw the army of occupation from France.

1819.

"Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer and Russian counselor, Kotzebue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German students (Burschenschaft). Reaction in Prussia. W. v. Humboldt, Beyme, Boyen, withdrew from the service of the state. Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternich. Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re

solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna,

where the

1820, May. Final Act of Vienna was signed.

In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended constitution of 1812, which was restored.

Oct. Congress at Troppau,

1821. Congress at Laybach,

assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in Naples and Piedmont.

1821. Victorious campaign of the Austrians against the Liberals in

1 For France see p. 526.

Naples (Pepe, Caracosa) and Sardinia (Santa Rosa, battle of Novara). In both countries absolutism in its severest form was restored.

1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian disturbances.

1823. French intervention in Spain under the lead of the duke of Angoulême. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand VII., who had been detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous executions (Riego).

1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central America and South America into independent

states.

Colombia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, in 1830, into three republics: New Granada (now Colombia in the narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. (Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 1821 by Iturbide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823; Iturbide returned, but was executed 1824.

Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel, the younger son of king John VI. († 1826), after a long civil war and unheard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don Pedro († 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in 1826 to his daughter, Donna Maria; in 1831 he delegated the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II.

1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence.

Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (MarchJune, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was detained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea (Mainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Constantinople, Adrianople, etc.; terrible barbarities in Chios, which had revolted; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Byron († Apr. 24, 1824), Eynard from Geneva. William Müller the German poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and America (Dr. Howe)]. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 1824-1830. Charles X., king of France (p. 527).

1825-1855. Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder brother Constantine having renounced the crown.

1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea. England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves.

1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mahmud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely abolished. 1827. Battle of Navarino. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by Oct. 20. the English, French, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War.

The Russian general, Diebitch, crossed the Balkans (whence his surname, Sabalkanski), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and Erzeroum were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Erivanski. 1829. Peace of Adrianople.

Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter power recognizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Conference which announced in 1830 the independence of Greece.

Provisional administration of the count Capo d'Istria as president, who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), the seat of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince,

1832-1862. Otto I., † 1867.

1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527).

1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris.

Abdication of Charles X.; accession of

1830-1848. Louis Philippe I.

For the details see p. 529. This revolution was followed by liberal uprisings throughout Europe.

1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king of England. Whig ministry.

1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause:

The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly different elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture. The success of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering dissatisfaction in Brussels.

1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the "Masaniello." The mediation of prince William of Orange, the eldest son of king William I., failed of success. Prince Frederic, the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of Sept. 26-27. On

Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. Provisional government.

The London Conference between the great powers procured a cessation of hostilities between Holland and Belgium and recognized the new state (Jan., 1831), which in February adopted a liberal monarch