ical constitution. After Louis Philippe had declined the honor for his second son, the duke of Nemours, upon whom the first choice fell, 1831-1865. Leopold L., of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king of the Belgians. [A man of ability and excellent disposition, he approved himself an admirable constitutional monarch.] The war with Holland lasted until 1833. Peace was established in 1839.

Results of the July Revolution: Revolutionary movements in Germany (in Saxony and Hesse-Cassel, alteration of the constitutions). In Brunswick duke Charles († 1873) was expelled; duke William taking his place, in accordance with a decree of the diet of the confederacy. Democratic transformation in many of the Swiss cantons. 1830-1832. Revolution in Poland.

1830, Nov. 29. Revolt in Warsaw. The attempted assassination of the grand duke Constantine foiled. Provisional government : Lubecki (pron. Lubetski), Czartoryski (pron. Tshar―), Chlopicki (Klopitzki), regarded with suspicion by the democrats (Lelewel). General Chlopicki dictator until Jan., 1831, then prince Radzivil commander-in-chief. The emperor Nicholas deposed by the diet Jan., 1831. Prince Czartoryski president. The Russians advanced under Diebitch. Bloody engagement at Grochow (Feb. 19-25, 1831), where the Poles with 45,000 men offered long and victorious resistance to the superior force of the Russians (70,000 men with more than twice as many cannon as the Poles possessed), but were at last forced back upon Prague. Skrzynecki commander-in-chief; defeat of the Russians at Wawar and Dembe Wielski; the insurrection spread through Lithuania and Podolia. Diebitch defeated the Poles in the bloody

1831, May 26. Battle of Ostrolenka. Diebitch † June 10. Want

of harmony among the Poles. Massacres by the Polish democrats in Warsaw. Czartoryski escaped and was replaced by the inefficient Krukowiecki. The new Russian general Paskevitch crossed the Vistula, captured Warsaw (Sept. 6 and 7, 1831). The Polish insurrection suppressed. The Organic Statute of Feb. 26, 1832, deprived Poland of its constitution and reduced it to a province of the Russian empire, although with a separate administration. 1831. Uprisings in Modena, Parma, and Romagna, quickly suppressed with the assistance of the Austrians. 1833-1840. After the death of Ferdinand VII., civil war in Spain. Led by Espartero, the constitutional party, which supported the claims of Isabella II., the minor daughter of the king, and her mother Maria Christina, after a bloody contest, defeated the absolutist party (Don Carlos, brother of the king, † 1855 in exile; leaders of the Carlists: Zumalacarregui, † 1835, Cabrera, Gomez). Espartero overthrown in 1843. Banishment of the queen dowager, Christina. 1833. The Frankfort uprising, wherein two watches were over

powered for a few hours, caused a vigorous reactionary movement throughout Germany. Frankfort received an AustroPrussian garrison. Establishment of commissions for political investigations, arrests and condemnations. Meeting of the sovereigns of

Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Münchengrätz; ministerial conference in Teplitz (1833) and Vienna (1834), by whose resolutions the rights of the estates in Germany were still further curtailed.

1833. Foundation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) (Maassen, Prussian minister of finance), which had been zealously advocated by Prussia since 1818. In 1830 the union already included a population of 25,000,000 and a territory of 80,600 square miles. After 1854 it embraced 98,000 square miles and 35,000,000 inhabitants.

1835-1848.

Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria.

The chancellor of state, Metternich, was still the actual head of the government and the soul of the conservative reactionary policy throughout Europe. Censorship of the press. Strict system of passports. Police surveillance.

1837. Upon the death of William IV. of England, Hanover, where the salic law regulated the descent of the throne, became separated from England.

Partial repeal of the fundamental statute of 1833 by the king of Hanover, Ernst August, under the pretext that the constitution had been adopted without his consent, he being at the time heir to the throne. The true reason was probably that the constitution had made the domains public property and had established a civil list. Dismissal of seven professors at Göttingen (Jacob and William Grimm, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Ewald, Albrecht and Weber), for refusal to take the oath of homage.

1837-X. Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. 1837. Arrest of the archbishop of Cologne (Droste von Vischering), in consequence of a quarrel with the Prussian government about marriages between persons of different religious beliefs. Death of Frederic William III. of Prussia. His son and sucJune 7.

1840.

cessor

1840-1861. Frederic William IV. (see p. 515).

Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in a previous victorious war (1831-1833) with his over-lord the sultan, threatened Constantinople. He was, however, compelled by the European powers to make peace, and obliged to be content with the investiture of Syria as a fief from the sultan. The attempt of the Porte (1839) to deprive him of Syria, failed. Ibrahim, son of Mehemed Ali, defeated the Turks at Nisib on the Euphrates. Through treachery the Turkish fleet fell into the hands of the viceroy of Egypt. Relying on the support of France, Mehemed Ali demanded from the young sultan Abdul-Medjid (18391861) the hereditary investiture of all lands under his government. To oppose these demands, England (lord Palmerston), Austria, Prussia, and Russia, concluded in 1840 a treaty of alliance, to the exclusion of France, which for a moment threatened the peace of Europe. After the fall of the ministry of Thiers, however, and after

1 Cf. p. 255, note.

Guizot became president of the ministry in October, France submitted and deserted the viceroy of Egypt. The armed intervention of England and Austria in Syria forced the viceroy to take a lower tone, and he retained only the hereditary rule over Egypt under the over-lordship of the Porte.

1846. Death of Pope Gregory XVI. Attempted reforms of his successor Pius IX. (Mastai-Ferretti).

1847. Convention of the united legislature (Landtag) in Prussia. War of the Sonderbund (separate confederacy) in Switzerland, against seven Catholic cantons (Jesuits). General Dufour quickly overpowered Freiburg and Luzerne. Dissolution of the Sonderbund.

Transformation of the Swiss confederacy from a close alliance [Staatenbund] of sovereign cantons into a federal nation [Bundesstaat]. The former diet, in which Zürich, Berne, and Luzerne had in turn been the chief town, was now succeeded by a confederate council which sat in Berne and consisted of 1. a council of estates (representation of the governments of the separate cantons), 2. a national council (representation of the whole Swiss people according to the density of the population). A common system of coinage; centralized postal service and military organization.

1848, Feb. 24. February Revolution in Paris (p. 530). 1848-1851 (1852). France, for the second time, a republic.

In Switzerland, complete victory of the radicals. The canton of Neuchâtel threw off allegiance to its prince, the king of Prussia.

1848. Revolutionary movements in Germany, in consequence of the French revolution.

Feb. 27. Popular assembly at Mannheim under the lead of Itzlein, which demanded a German parliament, jury trials, free press, right of forming organizations, societies, etc.

March 11. The elector of Hesse obliged to agree to these demands. March 13-15. Outbreak in Vienna. Metternich driven from the city, which fell into the hands of the burgher-guard and the students.

March 18. Conflicts in the streets of Berlin. The troops, tired but not conquered, left the city by order of the king (March 19– 20). Formation of a poorly disciplined burgher-guard. Liberal ministers frequently changed. Anarchy in the capital. Call of a constituent assembly at Berlin.

March 20.

After disturbances had occurred in Munich as early as March 6, Louis I. († 1868) abdicated in favor of his son Maximilian II. Disturbances in Saxony, Hanover, Nassau, Mecklenburg, etc.

March 31. Preliminary parliament in Frankfort opened under the presidency of Mittermaier. Four sessions. Resolve adopted to call a national German constituent assembly, for the purpose of making a constitution for the German empire.

April. A republican rising in Baden (Hecker, Struve), supported by the arrival of refugees (Herwegh) and foreign republicans quickly suppressed by the troops of the German confederation.

General Frederic von Gagern treacherously shot by the volunteers (April 20).

May 15. Second insurrection in Vienna, which compelled the convocation of a constituent diet. The emperor left Vienna and went to Innsbruck. The intended dissolution of the legion of students caused a

May 26. Third insurrection in Vienna, after which the troops left the city and a committee of public safety (citizens and students) controlled the city.

1848-1849. German National Assembly (Parliament) May 18. in Frankfort (Church of St. Paul) for the purpose of “harmonizing" a constitution for the German empire with the governments of the various states.

The national assembly elected archduke John of Austria (66 years old) administrator of the empire. He entered Frankfort June 11. The confederate council (Bundestag) dissolved itself. First imperial ministry (afterwards made more complete): Schmerling (Austria), foreign affairs, and interior; Peucker (Prussia), war; Heckscher (Hamburg), justice. It was soon evident, however, that the newly created central power had no real authority either as regarded foreign countries or the separate states.

President of the national assembly, Heinrich von Gagern. Parties: right (Radowitz, Vincke, prince Lichnowsky), holding to the idea of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate governments; left (Vogt, Ruge, Robert Blum), proclaiming the principle of the sovereignty of the people, and endeavoring to establish a republican confederation (Bundestaat) by revolutionary means; right centre (Gagern, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Arndt, Beseler, Bassermann, J. Grimm), which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the establishment of a constitutional monarchy for Germany; left centre (Römer, Fallmerayer, Raveaux, etc.), which insisted upon the unconditional subordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to be created on the basis of the sovereignty of the people; it recommended, however, that the views of the separate governments and such particular requirements of the states as were well founded should be respected.

1848. In Naples grant of a liberal constitution, followed by a reacFeb. tion after the victory of the Swiss troops in the conflicts in the

streets (May). War with Sicily, which was in revolt, but was subdued by Filangieri with great severity. After the murder of his minister, Rossi, Pius IX. fled to Gaëta (Nov.). Rule of the anarchists and republicans (Mazzini) in Rome. After a two months' siege Rome was captured by the French (July, 1849), and the papal authority was restored. The Pope did not return to Rome, however, until 1850. (French garrison in Rome, 1849-1866.)

1848. Slavonic congress in Prague,

June 2. called by the Czechs (Palacki), in order to unite the opposition of the Slavonic people of Austria against the growth of German culture and influence. In order that the representatives of the different Slavonic nationalities might understand one another,

the proceedings of this anti-German congress were held in German. June 12-17. Uprising of the Czechs in Prague suppressed by Windischgrätz.

Oct. 31. Capture of Vienna by imperial troops (Windischgrätz, Jellachich). Robert Blum (member of the parliament of Frankfort), Messenhauser (commander of the city), and many others were

shot. Nov. 1. Commencement of the reaction in Prussia. Ministry Brandenburg-Manteuffel. General Wrangel entered Berlin without resistance (Nov. 10). Proclamation of a state of siege. The burgher-guard disarmed.

Nov. 27. Transference of the national assembly to Brandenburg. As a quorum failed to meet there,

Dec. 5.

Dissolution of the national assembly and imposition of a constitution with two chambers, the second elected by universal (manhood) and equal suffrage.

Dec. 10. Prince Louis Napoleon elected president of the French Republic (p. 531).

1848-1849. War between Austria and Sardinia.

The Austrians, driven from Milan by a revolt (March, 1848), retired to Verona. An Italian attack at St. Lucia repulsed. Radetzki, reinforced by Nugent (engagements at Udine and Belluno), advanced again. The troops of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, victorious at Goito (May), were completely defeated by Radetzki at July 25. Custozza. Milan recaptured by the Austrians. Truce

from Aug. 9, 1848, to March 20, 1849. Radetzki, by the victory of Mortara (March 21) and Novara (March 23), compelled the conclusion of peace. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Portugal († July, 1849).

Capture of Brescia after terrible fighting in the streets. Cruelties exercised upon prisoners (Haynau). In Venice, after the withdrawal of the Austrian garrison (March, 1848), a provisional government in the name of the king of Sardinia was succeeded, after the defeat of the Italian army, by a republic (president Manin). Siege and capture of Venice by the Austrians (Aug. 1849). The whole of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom subjected anew to Austria. 1848-1849. Uprising of the Hungarians (Magyars).

The Hungarians demanded and received a separate ministry (April, 1848). Count Batthyanyi, president of the ministry; Kossuth (pr. Kóshut), minister of finance. Diet in Pesth under the presideney of the archduke Stephen as palatine. The opposition of the Slavonic population and the appanages of the crown of Hungary (Croatia, Transylvania) to the supremacy of the Magyars, and their demand for political equality, were supported by the court of Vienna. Jellachich appointed Ban of Croatia. Kossuth procured from the diet a levy of national troops (Honveds), and the issue of Hungarian paper money. Jellachich invaded Hungary, but was defeated at Velencze. The archduke palatine Stephen resigned his office. Count Lamberg, created imperial governor of Hungary, murdered at Pesth (Sept.). The emperor dissolved the diet.