After the abdication of Ferdinand I. († 1875) his nephew mounted the throne as

1848-x. Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria.

The Hungarian diet refused to recognize the abdication of Ferdinand I. and the accession of Francis Joseph I. Prince Windischgrätz led an Austrian army into Hungary. Kossuth and the Magyar officials retired to Debreczin. Windischgrätz occupied Pesth (Jan., 1849). The Polish general Bem, to whom Kossuth had given a command, defeated the Austrians in a series of engagements. Other troops, under the Pole Dembinski and the Magyar princes Görgey and Klapka, were successful against the Austrians. Dembinski was appointed commander-in-chief of the Magyar forces, but was defeated at Kapolna (Feb. 26, 1849) and resigned his command. Meanwhile a bloody struggle was in progress in Transylvania: Bem, defeated by the Austrian general Puchner at Hermanstadt (Feb., 1849), after having received reinforcements, took the offensive against the Austrians and Russians, whom the former had called to their aid, with success; driving the Russians out of Transylvania. In the west, too, fortune smiled upon the Hungarian arms. Görgey relieved Komorn. Windischgrätz was driven back to Pesth, which his successor, Welden, was compelled to evacuate; an Austrian garrison remained in Ofen. In consequence of the

1849. Publication of the general constitution for Austria, March 4. which abolished the ancient Hungarian constitution, the diet, upon Kossuth's motion, pronounced the deposition of the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Kossuth placed at the head of the Magyar government with the title of governor. Divisions and lack of decision among the Hungarians. Instead of marching upon Vienna they laid siege to Ofen, which Görgey captured May 21. Kossuth and the diet made a pompous entrance into Pesth. Meanwhile at a meeting of the emperors of Austria and Russia, Russian intervention was agreed upon, and a common plan of operations adopted for the subjugation of Hungary.

Last decisive struggle of the Hungarians. Bem defeated at Hermannstadt in Transylvania by the Russians (Lüders), who outnumbered him three to one. Dembinski forced to retire before the superior Russian force under Paskevitch. Görgey tried in vain to break through the main Austrian army under Haynau, was defeated at Zsigard and Komorn, went to the aid of Dembinski, defeated the Russians under Rüdiger at Waitzen, but was obliged to retire to the mountains upon the approach of Paskevitch, escaping the Russians only by a masterly retreat. Kossuth fled with the diet to Szegedin, whither Haynau marched. Dembinski, attacking him, was defeated at Szörek (Aug. 5), and at Temesvar (Aug. 9), where his army was almost entirely scattered. Confusion and discord among the Hungarians. Kossuth laid down the chief power; the dictatorship was conferred upon Görgey. Two days later Görgey concluded the 1849, Aug. 13. Capitulation of Vilagos,

in which about 25,000 men laid down their arms (120 cannon surrendered) before the Russian general Rüdi jer. Most of the other

corps surrendered unconditionally; Klapka alone, who defended Komorn, made an honorable capitulation. Kossuth, Bem, Dembinski, found refuge in Turkish territory. Haynau administered terrible punishment to the captured leaders of the insurrection. Numerous executions (count Batthyanyi hanged), imprisonments and confiscations. Abolition of the Hungarian constitution. Transylvania and Croatia separated from Hungary. Abolition of the general constitution of Austria, Dec. 31, 1851.

1848-1851. Three wars of Schleswig-Holstein against

Denmark.

Cause: "Open letter" of the king, Christian VIII. (July 8, 1846), which arbitrarily decreed the continuance of the union of the duchies with Denmark, in spite of the different laws of inheritance in the two states. A revolutionary movement in Copenhagen (Casino party) compelled king Frederic VII. to pronounce the annexation of Schleswig to Denmark (1848). Hence insurrection in the duchies (March, 1848), and formation of a provisional government of the country (Beseler).

1848. First War. Prussian troops and those of the German conApril-Aug. federacy came to the assistance of the duchies, which

were obliged to form a new army. General Wrangel defeated the Danes at Schleswig (April 23) and advanced to Jutland. The losses to commerce in the Baltic by the Danish blockade and the infiuence of England and Russia produced the not very honorable truce of Malmö (26 Aug. 1848-26 March, 1849). Establishment of "common government" for the duchies.

Dissatisfaction with the truce throughout Germany. Angry debates in the national assembly at Frankfort; contest in the streets with the populace, who were excited by the democrats. Murder of prince Lichnowsky and general von Auerswald (Sept.). 1849, March-July. Second War. Creation of a governorship (Bese

ler, Reventlow-Preetz) by the central government of Germany. At Eckernförde the ship of the line Christian VIII. was fired by cannonade and the frigate Gefion captured (April 5). Storm of the redoubts of Düppel by Bavarian and Saxon troops (April 13). The Prussian general Bonin, at the head of the Schleswig-Holstein army, defeated the Danes at Kolding (April 20). In consequence of the threatening attitude of England, France, and Russia, indifferent conduct of Prussia and other German troops in the war (general Prittwitz). Siege of Fredericia by the Schleswig-Holstein army, which, however, suffered a considerable loss through a successful sortie of the Danes. Truce of Berlin, between Prussia and Denmark (1849, July 10), whereby Schleswig was to be occupied by Swedish troops in the north, in the south by Prussian troops, and received a new administration. The truce was converted into a peace (in the name of the German confederation as well). Bonin and all Prussian officers were recalled from the Schleswig-Holstein army.

1850, Jan.-1851, July. Third War, conducted by Schleswig-Holsteiners alone without the aid of Germany. General Willisen, formerly in the Prussian service, assumed command of the army. He

was defeated at Idstedt (July 24, 25). Schleswig occupied by the Danes. In the engagement at Missunde (Sept. 12) the SchleswigHolstein troops were again defeated. In the storm of Friedrichstadt (Oct. 4) they were repulsed with great loss. The chief command was transferred from Willisen to general Horst. The German confederacy having been restored meanwhile (p. 498) enforced under Austrian influence the cessation of hostilities; Holstein was occupied by Austrian troops with the consent of Prussia, and delivered to the Danes upon the vague promise of "respecting the rights of the duchies" (1852).

1849. Completion of the constitution of the German Empire.

Diet, composed of a chamber of state, appointed half by the govern ments, half by the popular representatives of the separate states, and a popular chamber. Monarchical power with only a suspensive veto. Formation of two parties, the great German (Grossdeutsche) party, which wished to retain the German territory of Austria in Germany, and the small German (Kleindeutsche), which wished to exclude Austria and form a narrower confederacy under the hegemony of Prussia. 1849. The offer of the crown of emperor of the Germans, by a April 3. deputation of the national assembly at Frankfort, was declined by the king. Frederic William declared that he could assume the imperial dignity only with the consent of all German gov

ernments.

May. Uprising in Dresden (Tzschirner, Heubner, Todt, Bakunin) suppressed by Prussian assistance.

Recall and withdrawal of a great number of representatives 1849. from the national assembly at Frankfort. The Rump-ParJune. liament (president Löwe-Kalbe) in Stuttgart dissolved.

The administrator superseded by a central power to be executed by Austria and Prussia alternately, "for the German confederacy (The interim). Death of the administrator, Oct. 20, 1849. May. Republican uprising in the county palatine and in the grand duchy of Baden (Struve, Mieroslawski); defection of the army. Prussian troops under the prince of Prussia entered Baden, defeated the insurgents at Waghäusel, besieged and captured Rastadt.

The commander Tiedemann and others were shot; many, among them the poet Kinkel, condemned to imprisonment for life with hard labor (Kinkel, 1850, in Spandau, was rescued by Karl Schurz). 1850, Feb. 6. In Prussia the king and legislature took the oath of

allegiance to the revised constitution.

Exertions of Prussia to create a German federal state (Bundesstaat), with exclusion of Austria (Radowitz), actively supported by the old party of the hereditary empire in the Frankfort parliament, the Gothas (so called from a meeting in Gotha). The "alliance of the three kings" (Prussia, Hanover, Saxony), concluded May 26, 1849, which was immediately joined by most of the smaller German states, was soon broken up by the withdrawal of Hanover and Saxony. Nevertheless the

1850, March 20. Parliament of Erfurt was opened, which on the 27th April concluded the discussion of a new German Union. May 9-16. Congress of princes in Berlin, wherein the dislike of electoral Hesse (Hassenpflug) for the union came to light. Creation of a college of princes. Austria opposed the efforts of Prussia by the

Sept. 2. Reopening of the Frankfort parliament.

Contest over the constitution in the electorate of Hesse. Repeated dissolution of the assembly of the estates by Hassenpflug. The whole country was pronounced in a state of war (Sept. 7). Resistance of the officials and the courts. The prince elector left the country and invited the intervention of the diet, which had been restored by Austria, but was not recognized by Prussia and her confederates; Hassenpflug ambassador to the diet. The diet granted aid to the prince elector, Prussia protesting. General Haynau appointed military dictator in electoral Hesse (Oct. 2). Almost the entire corps of officers in electoral Hesse received their dismissal.

Rupture between Prussia and Austria; Nicholas of Russia took sides with the latter (two meetings in Warsaw). Meeting of the emperor of Austria and the kings of Bavaria and Würtemberg at Bregenz, directed against Prussia. Execution of the decree of the confederacy by Bavarian and Austrian troops. The Prussian government sent their troops (general Gröben) into electoral Hesse, and seemed for a moment about to oppose the execution of the decree of the confederacy (encounter of the pickets at Bronnzell, Nov. 8), but were finally satisfied with occupying the military roads of Prussia. Dismissal of the minister Radowitz, and thereby complete abandonment of the Prussian exertions for union. In the

1850. Conference at Olmütz (Manteuffel and SchwarNov. 29. zenberg) Prussia yielded to all the demands of Austria; Schleswig-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, the unlimited authority of the elector was restored in electoral Hesse. The question of the German constitution was settled at the

1850-1851. Conference at Dresden

Dec. 23-May 15. after a lengthy discussion, wherein the influence of the emperor of Russia had great weight, by a simple return to the diet of the confederacy. Prussia herself invited the former members of the union to send representatives to that body, so that the

1851. German confederation of 1815 was reestablished in its old form.

1851. First universal industrial exhibition in London.

1851. In Paris, coup d'état of Louis Napoleon, who beDec. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five great powers and Sweden. In order to guarantee the integrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, with

out consulting the estates of the duchies. The female line next in succession having renounced its rights, Christian of SonderburgGlücksburg was proclaimed heir of the childless king Frederic VII. for the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by Hanover, Saxony, and Würtemberg, but not by the German confederation. 1852, Dec. 1. Napoleon III., emperor of the French (18521870).

1853-1856. War of Russia against Turkey and

1854-1856.

"

War of the western powers against Russia. Crimean War.

Cause: Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catharine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas I. Thinking an alliance between England and France impossible, and believing that he had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward without hesitation. He developed his views, concealing but little, to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour: Servia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and the principalities of the Danube should become independent states under Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied provisionally, by Russian troops; the prospect of the acquisition of Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavorable attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand for a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the Turkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian ambassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the proposition. Mentchikoff left Constantinople with threats (May 21, 1853). 1853. A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance

to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes of observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of the Danube (July). Meeting between Nicholas and the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmütz (Sept.), where however, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assurance of neutrality under certain conditions. The Porte declared war upon Russia (Oct.). Omer Pacha crossed the Danube and held his ground against the Russians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian fleet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the Danube,

1854, March 12. Alliance of the western powers with Turkey, and March 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Ruś

sia. Paskevitch appointed to the chief command of the Russian army which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen trated in Gallipoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these states declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act of war, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The emperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation "for strategic reasons (July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were provisionally occupied by the Austrians.