in that respect, as will be seen hereafter, by the cruel treatment given by Darius and Xerxes to two young noblemen, whose fathers had desired, as a favour, that their sons might be permitted to stay at home, for a comfort to them in their old age.* Herodotus speaks of a body of troops appointed to be the king's guard, which were called Immortal, because this body, which consisted of ten thousand, perpetually subsisted, and was always complete; for as soon as any of the men died, another was immediately put into his place. The establishment of this body probably began with the ten thousand men sent for by Cyrus out of Persia to be his guard. They were distinguished from all the other troops by the richness of their armour, and still more by their singular courage. Quintus Curtius also mentions this body of men, and likewise another body consisting of fifteen thousand, designed in like manner to be a guard to the king's person: the latter were called doryphori, or lancers.‡ II. THEIR ARMOUR. THE ordinary arms of the Persians were a sabre, or scimitar, acinaces, as it is called in Latin; a kind of a dagger, which hung in their belt on the right side; a javelin, or half-pike, having a sharp pointed iron at the end. It seems that they carried two javelins, or lances, one to throw, and the other to fight with. They made great use of the bow, and of the quiver in which they carried their arrows. The sling was not unknown among them; but they did not set much value upon it. It appears from several passages in ancient authors, that the Persians wore no helmets, but only their common caps, which they called tiaras; this is partroularly said of Cyrus the younger, and his army.§ And yet the same authors, in other places, make mention of their helmets; from whence we must conclude, that their custom had changed according to the times. The foot for the most part wore cuirasses made of brass, which were so artfully fitted to their bodies, that they were no impediment to the motion and agility of their limbs; no more than the vambraces, or other pieces of armour, which covered the arms, thighs, and legs of the horsemen. Their horses them selves for the most part had their faces, breasts, and flanks, covered with brass. These are what are called equi cataphracti, barbed horses. Authors differ very much about the form and fashion of their shields. At first they used very small and light ones; made only of twigs of osier, gerra. But it appears from several passages, that they had also shields of brass, which were of a great length. We have already observed, that in the first ages the light-armed soldiers, that is, the archers, slingers, &c. composed the bulk of the armies among the Persians and Medes. Cyrus, who had found by experience, that such troops were only fit for skirmishing, or fighting at a distance, and who thought it most advantageous to come directly to close fight, made a change in his army, and reduced those light-armed troops to a very few, arming the far greater number at all points, like the rest of the army. III. CHARIOTS ARMED WITH SCYTHES. CYRUS introduced a considerable change likewise with respect to the chariots of war. These bad been in use a long while before his time, as appears both from Homer and the sacred writings. These chariots had only two wheels, and were generally drawn by four horses abreast, with two men in each; one of distinguished birth and valour, who fought, and the other only for driving the chariot. Cyrus thought this method, which was very expensive, was but of little service: since, for the equipping of three hundred chariots, were required twelve hundred horses and six hundred men, of which there were but Herod. I. iv. et vi. Sen. de Ira, 1. iii. c. 16, 17. Herod. 1. vii. c. 83. Herod. 1. iii. c. 3. Xenoph. Cyrop. 1. vi. p. 152. three hundred who really fought, the other three hundred, though all men of merit and distinction, and capable of doing great service if otherwise employed, serving only as charioteers or drivers. To remedy this inconvenience, he altered the form of the chariots and doubled the number of the fighting men that rode in them, by putting the drivers in a condition to fight, as well as the others. He caused the wheels of the chariots to be made stronger, that they should not be so easily broken; and their axle-trees to be made longer, to make them the more firm and steady. At each end of the axle-tree he caused scythes to be fastened that were three feet long, and placed horizontally; and caused other scythes to be fixed under the same axle-tree with their edges turned to the ground, that they might cut in pieces men or horses, or whatever the impetuous violence of ine chariots should overturn. It appears from several passages in authors, that in after-times, besides all this, they added two long iron spikes at the end of the pole, in order to pierce whatever came in the way; and that they armed the hinder part of the chariot with several rows of sharp knives, to hinder any one from mounting behind.* These chariots were in use for many ages in all the eastern countries. They were looked upon as the principal strength of the armies, as the most certain causes of victory, and as an apparatus the most capable of all others to strike the enemy with consternation and terror. But in proportion as the military art improved, the inconveniences of them were discovered, and at length they were laid aside. For, to reap any advantage from them, it was necessary to fight in large plains, where the soil was very even, and where there were no rivulets, gullies, woods, nor vineyards. In after-times several methods were invented to render these charic's absolutely useless. It was enough to cut a ditch in their way, which immediately stopped their course. Sometimes an able and experienced general, as Eumenes in the battle which Scipio fought with Antiochus, would attack the chariots with a detachment of slingers, archers, and spearmen, who, spreading themselves on all sides, would pour such a storm of stones, arrows, and lances, upon them, and at the same time begin shouting so loud with the whole army, that they terrified the horses, and occasioned such disorder and confusion, as often made them turn upon their own forces. At other times they would render the chariots ineffectual and inactive, only by marching over the space which separated the two armies, with an extraordinary swiftness, and advancing suddenly upon the enemy. For the strength and execution of the chariots proceeded from the length of their course, which was what gave that impetuosity and rapidity to their motion, without which they were but very feeble and insignificant. It was after this manner that the Romans under Sylla, at the battle of Charonea, defeated and put to flight the enemy's chariots, by raising loud peals of laughter, as if they had been at the games of the circus, and by crying out to them to send more. IV. THEIR DISCIPLINE IN PEACE AS WELL AS IN WAR. NOTHING can be imagined more perfect, than the discipline and good order of the troops in Cyrus's reign, whether in peace or war. The methods used by that great prince, as is fully related in Xenophon's Cyropædia, in order to form his troops by frequent exercises, to inure them to fatigue, by keeping them continually active and employed in laborious works, to prepare them for real battle by mock engagements, to fire them with courage and resolution by exhortations, praises, and rewards, all present a perfect model for those who have the command of troops, to whom, generally speaking, peace and tranquillity become extremely pernicious; for a relaxation of discipline, which usually ensues, enervates the vigour of the soldiers; and their inaction blunts that edge of courage, which the motion of armies, and the approach of * Liv. I. xxxvii. n. 41. † Ibid. Plut. in Syll. p. 463. enemies, greatly sharpen and excite. A prudent foresight ought to make us prepare in time of peace whatever will be needful in time of war.* Whenever the Persian armies marched, every thing was ordered and carried on with as much regularity and exactness as on a day of battle; not a soldier or officer daring to quit his rank, or remove from the colours. It was the custom among all Asiatics, whenever they encamped, though but for a day or a night, to have their camp surrounded with pretty deep ditches. This they did to prevent being surprised by the enemy, and that they might not be forced to engage against their inclinations. They usually contented themselves with covering their camp with a bank of earth dug out of these ditches; though sometimes they fortified them with strong palisadoes, and long stakes driven into the ground.† By what has been said of their discipline in time of peace, and of their manner of marching and encamping their armies, we may judge of their exactness on a day of battle. Nothing can be more wonderful than the accounts we have of it in several parts of the Cyropædia. No single family could be better regulated, or pay a more ready and exact obedience to the first signal, than the whole army of Cyrus. He had long accustomed them to that prompt obedience, on which the success of all enterprises depends. For what avails the best head in the world, if the arms do not act conformably, and follow its directions? At first he had used some severity, which is necessary in the beginning, in order to establish a good discipline; but this severity was always accompanied with reason, and tempered with kindness. The example of their leader, who was the first upon all duty, gave weight and authority to his discourse, and softened the rigour of his commands. The unalterable rule he laid down to himself, of granting nothing but to merit only, and of refusing every thing to favour, was a sure means of keeping all the officers attached to their duty, and of making them perpetually vigilant and careful. For there is nothing more discouraging to persons of that profession, even to those who love their prince and their country, than to see the rewards to which the dangers they have undergone, and the blood they have spilt, entitle them, conferred upon others.§ Cyrus had the art of inspiring even his common soldiers with a zeal for discipline and order, by first inspiring thein with a love of their country, for their honour, and their fellow-citizens; and above all, by endearing himself to them by his bounty and liberality. These are the true methods of establishing and supporting military discipline in full force and vigour. V. THEIR ORDER OF BATTLE. As there were but very few fortified places in Cyrus's time, all their wars were little else than field expeditions; for which reason that wise prince found out, by his own reflection and experience, that nothing contributed more to victory than a numerous and good cavalry; and that the gaining of a single pitched battle was often attended with the conquest of a whole kingdom. Accordingly we see, that having found the Persian army entirely destitute of that important and necessary succour, he turned all his thoughts towards remedying the defect, and so far succeeded, by his great application and activity, as to form a body of Persian cavalry, which became superior to that of his enemies, in goodness at least, if not in number. There were several breeds of horses in Persia and Media: but in the latter province, those of a place called Nisea were the most esteemed; and it was from thence the king's stable was furnished. We shall now examine what use they made of their cavalry and infantry. * -Metuensque futuri, In pace, ut sapiens, aptarit idonea bello.-Hor. Satyr. ii. 1, 2. Dux, cultu levi, capite intecto, in agmine, in laboribus frequens adesse: laudem strenuis, solatium invalidis, exemplum omnibus ostendere.-Tacit. Annal. 1. xiii. c. 35. Cecidisse in irritum labores, si præmia periculorum soli assequantur, qui periculis non affuerunt.-Tacit Hist. lib. iii. cap. 53. Herod. 1. vii. c. 40 Strab. L xi. P. 590. The celebrated battle of Thymbra may serve to give us a just notion of the tactics of the ancients in the days of Cyrus, and to show how far their ability extended, either in the use of arms or disposition of armies. They knew, that the most advantageous order of battle was to place the infantry in the centre, and the cavalry, which consisted chiefly of the cuirassiers, on the two wings of the army. By this disposition the flanks of the foot were covered, and the horse were at liberty to act and extend themselves, as occasion should require. They likewise understood the necessity of drawing out an army into several lines, in order to support one another; because otherwise, as one single line might easily be pierced through and broken, it would not be able to rally, and consequently the army would be left without resource. For which reason, they formed the first line of foot, heavily armed, twelve men deep, who, on the first onset, made use of the half-pike; and afterwards, when the fronts of the two armies came close together, engaged the enemy hand to hand with their swords, or scimitars. The second line consisted of such men as were lightly armed, whose manner of fighting was to throw their javelins over the heads of the first. These javelins were made of a heavy wood, pointed with iron, and were thrown with great violence. The design of them was to put the enemy into disorder, before they came to close fight. The third line consisted of archers, whose bows being bent with the utmost force, carried their arrows over the heads of the two preceding lines, and extremely annoyed the enemy. These archers were sometimes mixed with slingers, who slung great stones with a terrible force; but, in aftertimes, the Rhodians, instead of stones, made use of leaden bullets, which the slings car ried a great deal farther. A fourth line, formed of men in the same manner as those of the first, formed the rear of the main body. This line was intended for the support of the others, and to keep them to their duty, in case they gave way. It served likewise for a rear-guard, and a body of reserve to repulse the enemy, if they should hap pen to penetrate so far. They had, besides, moving towers, carried upon huge wagons, drawn by sixteen oxen each, in which were twenty men, whose business was to discharge stones and javelins. These were placed in the rear of the whole army, behind the body of reserve, and were used to support their troops when they were driven back by the enemy, and to favour their rallying when in disorder. They made great use, too, of their chariots armed with scythes, as we have already observed. These they generally placed in the front of the battle, and some of them at certain times upon the flanks of the army, or when they had any reason to fear their being surrounded. Thus far, and not much farther, did the ancients carry their knowledge in the military art, with respect to their battles and engagements. But we do not find that they had any skill in choosing advantageous posts, in seasonably possessing themselves of a favourable spot, or bringing the war into a close country; of making use of defiles and narrow passes, either to molest the enemy in their march, or to cover themselves from their attacks; of laying artful ambuscades; of protracting a campaign to a great length by wise delays; of not suffering a superior enemy to force them to a decisive action, and of reducing him to the necessity of preying upon himself through the want of forage and provisions. Neither do we see that they had much regard to the defending of their right and left with rivers, marshes, or mountains, and by that means to make the front of a smaller army equal to that of another much more numerous, and to put it out of the enemy's power to surround or flank them. Yet, in Cyrus's first campaign against the Armenians, and afterwards against the Babylonians, they seemed to have made their first advances and essays VOL. I. * Before Cyrus's time it was twenty-four men. 25 R in this art; but they were not improved, or carried to any degree of per fection in those days. Time, reflection, and experience, made the great commanders in after ages acquainted with these precautions and subtleties of war; and we have already shown, in the wars of the Carthaginians, what use Hannibal, Fabius, Scipio, and other generals of both nations, made of them. VI. THEIR MANNER OF ATTACKING AND DEFENDING STRONG PLACES. THE ancients both devised and executed all that could be expected from the nature of the arms known in their days, as also from the force and variety of engines then in use, either for attacking or defending fortified places. 1. THEIR WAY OF ATTACKING PLACES. THE first method of attacking a place was by blockade. They invested the town with a wall built quite round it, and in which, at proper distances, were made redoubts and magazines; and between the wall and the town they dug a deep trench, which they strongly fenced with pallisadoes, to hinder the besieged from going out, as well as to prevent succours or provisions from being brought in. In this manner they waited till famine did what they could not effect by force or art. From hence proceeded the length of the sieges related by the ancients; as that of Troy,* which lasted ten years; that of Azoth by Psammeticus, which lasted twenty; that of Nineveh, where we find Sardanapalus defended himself for the space of seven. And Cyrus might have lain a long time before Babylon, where a stock of provisions for twenty years had been laid in, if he had not devised a different method of taking it. As they found blockades extremely tedious from their duration, they invented the method of scaling, which was done by raising a great number of ladders against the walls, by means of which a great many files of soldiers might climb up together, and force their way in. To render this method of scaling impracticable, or at least ineffectual, they made the walls of their cities extremely high, and the towers, wherewith they were flanked, still considerably higher, that the ladders of the besiegers might not be able to reach the top of them. This obliged them to find out some other way of getting to the top of the ramparts; and this was, building moveable towers of wood, still higher than the walls, and by approaching them with these wooden towers. On the top of these towers, which formed a kind of platform, was placed a competent number of soldiers, who with darts and arrows, and the assistance of their baliste and catapulta, scoured the ramparts, and cleared them of the defenders; and then, from a lower stage of the tower, they let down a kind of draw-bridge, which rested upon the wall, and gave the soldiers admittance. A third method, which extremely shortened the length of their sieges, was that of the battering-ram, by which they made breaches in the walls, and opened themselves a passage into the places besieged. This battering-ram was a vast thick beam of timber, with a strong head of iron or brass at the end of it, which was pushed with the utmost force against the walls. There were several kinds of them; but I shall give a more ample and particular account of these, as well as other war-like engines, in another place. They had still a fourth method of attacking places, which was, that of sapping and undermining; and this was done two different ways, that is, either to carry a subterranean path quite under the walls, into the heart of the city, and so open themselves a passage and entrance into it; or else, after they had sapped the foundation of the wall, and put supporters under it, to fill the space with all sorts of combustible matter, and then to set that matter on fire, in order to burn down the supporters, calcine the materials of the wall, and throw down part of it. * Homer makes no mention of the battering ram, or any warlike engine. |