the wigwam. This was formed of sapling trees and covered with the bark of larger trees. Each lodge sheltered a single family, as Brinton has noted, and in this respect other writers have remarked the difference from the Iroquois communal system. Sometimes the Lenape huts were placed in groups, thus forming a village, and sometimes the village was surrounded by a palisade of driven stakes for defense, as was the Indian custom, but all such structures rapidly decayed and disappeared when abandoned by their occupants. Such, but not palisaded, were the Delaware villages about Pittsburgh, except Logstown on the Ohio, which, as its name implies, was a group of log-cabins, originally built by the French half-breed Peter Chartier for the Shawanese and Ohio Mingoes, and destined in the history of the West to become one of the most notable, its site later the encampment of Wayne's American Legion in 1793, and hence the name Legionville, which has been handed down.

Charles A. Hanna, in his most elaborate work, "The Wilderness Trail" (1911), has with patient care and by long-continued research traced the locations of all the Delaware villages in Pennsylvania, and in his history of this nation in the chapter he has headed "The Petticoat Indians of Petticoat Land," has included all that is extant concerning the Lenape in Pennsylvania, and necessarily also of them in the Ohio Valley. The local history appended is rare, and perhaps found in no other single work, and to him all subsequent historians must accord admiration as they have access to his books.

The Delawares, as other Algonquians, were hunters and fishermen in time of peace; warriors before the Iroquois conquest or "pacification," and savage warriors when they asserted themselves free and proved it. The Pennsylvania and New Jersey habitats of the Lenape abounded in wild life, and to such extent that all early explorers wrote vivid descriptions of its abundance. When the white men came, their first thought was to turn the fauna to commercial account; hence the "fur trade" arose, and trading stations were established, to which the Indians brought their peltries of many kinds-bear, deer, sable, otter, beaver, fox, wild-cat, lynx, raccoon, even mink and muskrat had good value, though small in size. The Indian was a shrewd trapper, a good shot with bow and arrow, and he used also the spear and club with advantage. In fishing, he speared the fish in the shallow places, or when driven into ponds formed by brush dams, and most frequently caught them with hook and line. When the Lenape came to Western Pennsylvania, they came to a land of rivers and streams where fish and game abounded, and where the traders soon found them, and then came trouble and warfare.

Under the Indian system there was never any individual ownership of land; its use was always in common. A family had only a right of temporary occupancy. Near their villages were generally rich alluvial bottom lands, and if not, the woods were cleared by a burning which

provided a field wherein the women planted maize, which the first settlers termed "Indian corn," and the world knows simply as "corn." The time for planting was "when the oak leaf was the size of a squirrel's ear." They raised some other vegetables, usually beans and pumpkins. It is well authenticated that the process of making maple sugar was an Indian discovery; at least, the whites obtained the method from them. Zeisberger, the Moravian missionary, describes the process and states that the women went into the woods in February to boil the maple sap. The Indians had no fruit but wild fruit until they followed the white men's example and set out orchards. Pennsylvania, rightly named Penn's woods, was at Penn's coming and for more than a century later, an unbroken forest. Estimates have fixed only one-tenth of the State's surface as then treeless land. Large trees stood most often at the edges of the running streams and lakes, and as the Indians habitually sought resident locations along streams and by the waterside, their agricultural facilities were limited in area, as well as primitive in method of cultivation. When one traveled west in Pennsylvania, he was said to have gone "into the woods," and emigrants to the borders of the province "into the backwoods," hence the term "backwoodsmen," synonymous in a degree with "bordermen" and "frontiersmen," for these latter, though pioneers, were not always settlers, for they included trappers and traders with no fixed habitations.

The Indians were not artisans; they were not workers of metal, for they had no cutting instruments of metal. The copper articles they had were mostly ornamental, the material wrought from "native" or pure copper, as Brinton states, procured from surface deposits or shallow. mines. They could not reduce ores to extract metal, or work it by fire and hammer.

That the women's part in their economic system included the labor in the fields and lodge, is not as strange as ordinarily considered. There were good reasons. The exertions of the males were far more arduous. They needed strength and agility for the chase, and most especially for war. Labor tended to impair their swiftness of motion and freedom of limb, and any deterioration of strength and vitality might be fatal in combat, in that the vanquished warrior was not evenly matched with his antagonist. Boys were trained from their earliest years to run, jump, fish and shoot, to endure hardship, suffer hunger and thirst in silence. The Indian was a trained stoic.

The Indians lived close to Nature. Sometimes their existence was placid and their subsistence easily procured; at other times with great difficulty, and famine was not rare. The Indians' faculties of observation have been the wonder of all conversant with them. Signs of life and movement in forest and field which a civilized person would not observe, appeared plain to them. Early writers on the Indians record many

instances of remarkable and accurate deductions. That formerly much esteemed writer of his years, Samuel G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), is one who will be remembered as reciting in his little book, "Manners and Customs of the American Indians," some of the most striking instances of Indian reasoning from outward observations. The habits of all wild animals, weather phenomena, the growth and decay of vegetation, aspects of nature, in various forms, both of atmosphere and sky, were familiar to all Indians in the minutest detail, and these details constituted their education. They had a calendar, for they knew the seasons occurred regularly; there was a seedtime and consequent harvest; the trees budded, and the leaves fell in uniform intervals; the moon's phases appealed to them as a striking example of natural regularity, hence they made their own year in thirteen moons, and each person could count his own age and assign to events their due order of succession. Among the Lenape, these chronicles were mental. Some Algonquins used notched sticks to record certain things. It can be said, however, that the Indians generally made no records, erected no monuments, carved no stones of commemoration. Their traditions, always cherished; their laws, their history-were altogether oral in transmissal, and had been handed down thus by word of mouth for time immemorial.

Until the traders came, the Indians had no metal implements or arms. Stone was their main material. They made axes from it, and hammers, and the pestle, and frequently the mortar in which they pounded the corn for meal. They had even stone knives, which they deftly used in stripping off the skins of the animals they killed. They had also stone hoes and spades, and many other articles in common use. They had stone pipes for smoking their tobacco which they raised; stone quoits for their games; and stone ornaments for personal adornment. Many of these did not differ materially from those found in the mounds of the primitive American race. The later Indians had the same weapons of stone, arrow heads and spear heads, and tomahawks, or battle axes. These stone objects surviving for ages and found widely spread, have remained the most notable evidences of the Indian period of Pennsylvania. They were found in profusion in many places in and about Pittsburgh, as stated in previous pages.

The Lenape had, as all Indians, some arts of manufacture. Though their handiwork was crude, it was sensible and practical. They were skilled in dressing the skins of animals, especially deer skins. They made earthenware utensils, baking them hard and black. They hollowed out soapstone for pots and pans, and made also some household vessels of wood. The large wild gourd, the calabash, they readily utilized for a water carrier and as a dipper, and it is one of their few contributions to the use of the whites, but not so largely in use as in pioneer days. The

women were proficient in weaving mats from the tough though flexible inner bark of trees. They were skillful also in the making of ornamental garments from the plumage of birds. They made "wampum" strings of beads which were used to decorate ceremonious belts, and in a limited way served as money. Wampum was usually made from bits of shells from the seashore. The women were adepts in dyeing; they used wild cherries, certain barks, and the sumac berries. They found colored clays which furnished them a coarse but satisfactory paint. When the white traders came, they brought a new line of goods, and most of the materials and crudities of Indian economics were discarded.

The Lenape, as other tribes, had no domestic animals except a halfwild dog. They had never seen a horse or a cow until the white settlers broke in upon their hunting grounds. They had no beasts of burden, and hence no means of transportation or movement save those which their own vigor supplied. On land they walked or ran; if in company, always in "Indian" or "single file;" on water they paddled their canoes, which have become famous in song and story. Some tribes made canoes of bark; usually the Lenape canoe was constructed from a hollowed log. The labor of this work required rare diligence. By fire and with the stone axe, the workman felled the suitable tree, cut off the proper length, hollowed it, and shaped it into a "dug-out," or "pirogue," and these boats were found by the first white explorers of the Delaware when the Indians rowed out to the vessels in midstream.

On his journey to the Wabash in 1793, Heckewelder found the “dugout" of great advantage in a perilous crossing of Stony creek in Somerset county, Pennsylvania. The stream was very high, and the canoe they expected to use had been carried away in the night. He relates: "After many entreaties and promises on our part, a sugar trough was brought from the woods, and in this novel vessel we were safely ferried over, but had almost lost our horses."

In a previous chapter the making of a trail has been described. This by their long and frequent marches in the chase or in war, and how these worn paths or trails have developed into main roads that are justly called historic highways, has been told.

The Lenape were typical Algonquins; they were straight, of medium height, and reddish brown in color. William Penn was impressed with their strength and virility. He described them as "generally tall, straight, and well built, and of singular proportion; they tread strong and clever, and mostly walk with a lofty chin." In other words, "they carried their

5A "sugar trough" is thus described by him: "Hollow logs, either naturally such from decay and the ravages of animals, or scooped out artificially, were frequently used by the Indians of the Delaware family as canoes, and among them the earlier white settlers for industrial purposes. The birch bark fitted for boating is not common in these parts of the country."-"Journey to the Wabash," in "Penna. Magazine of History;" Vol. XI, pp. 46-47.