SECTION SECOND. DOCTRINE OF DUTIES AND RIGHTS. IN QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 66 Reason, Observation, and Experience,-the Holy Trinity of Science,-have taught us that happiness is the only good; that the time to be happy is now, the way to be happy is to make others so. soll, "The Gods." and This is enough for us."-Rob. Inger Introduction. § 1. Explanations-Man's Moral Faculties. What does Nature assign to every one of its creatures? Its peculiar destiny. By what do we discern the destination of a thing? By its constitution. By what do we also discern the destined end of Man? By his faculties and forces. What does Man (according to the common usage of language) naturally possess? He possesses a body, senses, a mind, intellect, reason, conscience, different impulses, etc. What force is the human Mind in the general signification of the word? It is the force by which we perceive, feel and desire. The force of perceiving is also called Intellect. What do we discern by Intellect and Reason? By Intellect we discern truth and error; by Reason, what is right and wrong, good and bad. What is Mind in the stricter sense? The faculty of the feelings. In this signification we call it also the Heart. How many classes of feelings are there? Two, viz.: sensations and emotions. How do sensations differ from emotions? Sensations are caused by impressions on the senses e. g., hunger, thirst, heat, and cold. Emotions are occasioned by an excited condition of mind, e. g. love, hatred, gratitude, repentance. Can Reason also be cultivated? It can be cultivated, like every other faculty. In what regard is Reason called Conscience? As far as its verdicts refer to our own actions, and are joined with approbation and content, or with reproach and repentance. Does Conscience always remain the same? No; it changes in proportion as we grow better or worse, or attain a higher grade of culture. What else is Conscience called? Moral Sense. What is human will? It is the power of man to commence an act for himself. Is human will absolutely free? No, it is only so far free as man can resolve according to what he has perceived to be good or bad, right or wrong. By what is our will induced to action? By motives. Under what kind of necessity does the honest man act? Under moral necessity. What do we acquire by our senses? We acquire by them our notions of objects (see Intuit. of the Univ., §§ 10, II). What do the notions of objects write in our mind? Wishes and desires. What do, by degrees, spring out of the wishes and desires? If they are often satisfied, propensities, habits, passions spring out of them. Is the power of habits strong? It is almost irresistible; habit becomes a new nature of man. Different impulses; e. g., the impulse to preserve his life, to procure food, property, honor; the impulse of sympathy, which moves us to take interest in the sufferings and joys of our fellowmen, etc. What is man's highest faculty? Reason it is the highest prerogative in which man excels. animals. § 2. Human Destination. What is the proper way for man to reach his destination? The only proper way is to develop harmoniously all his faculties and forces, and to use them according to Nature's laws. Must he destroy some of them? He should destroy no faculty, -on the contrary, grant every one its claim; he must only subordinate the lower to the higher ones. What do Man's nature and constitution teach us to consider as his destination? Man's nature and constitution teach us that he is destined to promote his own happiness or welfare, and that of his fellow creatures. How does man attain this end, viz: his own welfare and that of others? By satisfying in a natural way all his faculties.* Does experience confirm this view of human destination? Experience confirms it, for we see that all men endeavor to become happy. Nobody carries his wheat to market with the intention of giving it away, but for the sake of his profit. But what does not constitute human happiness? Grossly sensual enjoyments do not constitute it; suffice it that our necessary wants are satisfied, that we live free of pain, fear, covetousness, and other base passions; that we enjoy a pure conscience. "Sound health, moderate fortune, and a mind well stored with knowledge; these are the grand ingredients of happiness."-Thales, 643 A. C.** But what confers the highest degree of happiness? The consciousness of generous actions; e. g., when a mother *Man's happiness can only be produced by the exercise of his faculties." "Happiness consists in the due satisfaction of all the desires, that is, in the due exercise of all the faculties." -Herb. Spencer, Soc. Statistics, pp. 92, 93. **Thales, Solon, Bias, Aristotle, Pittacus, Democritus, Cleobulus, belonged to the famous Greek philosophers. They lived long before Christ. There is a vulgar notion among Christians that there never were any views of morality before the Bible was composed, and that without this book we should have no idea of right and wrong. This notion is gratuitous and presumptuous. Morality existed before the Bible existed, and will exist when the Bible is obsolete. We can find morality of the highest and purest character in the writings of men who lived a long ime before Christ. Morality is perfectly independent of the Jewish and Christian Text Book joyfully sacrifices her life for her child. pense. Virtue is its own recom But whose aid do we need in order to be happy ourselves? In order to be happy, we need the aid of other persons; for no body is able alone to provide for all his wants. What do people soon find out? They soon find out whether we are selfish, unjust and uncharitable. What will they do when this is the case? They will do to us just as we have done to them. In what way must we, then, procure the favor of other persons? By justice and kindness. How must we, therefore, behave towards them, if we want to be happy? In order to be happy, we must make also others happy. § 3. Duties Virtue and Vice-Their Consequences-Doctrine of Duties. Who is said to be prudent? He who for his own advantage is induced to perform any action. When do we call an action moral? If man acts according to reason and conscience, his action is called moral, or absolutely good. What kind of a motive must there be at the bottom of a moral action? A moral intention must be its motive. What does Reason comnand man to do? Reason commands him to do what is good and right, and to shun what is bad and wrong. What is Reason, therefore, to his moral life? Its legislator. What do we call the laws of Reason? Duties, which man is obliged to fulfil. What is virtue ? *The principle of the doctrine of Happiness is recognized by the most celebrated philosophers on Morals, e. g., by H. Spencer, who even says: "Human welfare agrees with the Divine will; that's the doctrine of all our Theologians." This remark may put at ease those persons who cannot think that moral conduct without religion is possible. Virtue is the performance of the laws of Reason. Him who always performs his duties. What do we call the contrary of virtue and virtuous? Is there only one virtue and one vice? There are several virtues and vices, e. g., the virtue of temperance, of application, of placability; the vice of avarice, of envy, etc. Who acts wisely? He who in order to attain moral purposes, chooses also the aptest means. What are the consequences of virtue and vice? Virtue affords man inward content, the respect and love of others, often also prosperity, and at all events the supreme happiness of life. Vice deprives him of peace of mind, racks him with the stings of his conscience, destroys the health of his body and his mental faculties, and heaps the hatred and contempt of others upon him. Every one bears in himself his heaven and his hell. Why, then, ought we to practice virtue and to shun vice? Because that creates happiness,—this unhappiness. What are Morals in Ethics? They are the science which teaches us the knowledge of human duties. Why is this science useful? Because it teaches us to know our duties, upon the practice of which our welfare depends. Are morals and manners synonymous terms? No; the latter regard only the outward deportment of man, the way of life according to custom and convenience. Manners change in the course of time, and are very different with diverse nations. But the fundamental laws of Ethics are eternal, immutable and universally valid. § 4. First Principles of Ethics. What are moral principles? Such propositions as those from which the special precepts of Morals can be derived. |