is that of the circumcision. Boys at the age of six or seven undergo this operation in all seasons of the year, preparatory to which some sheep are killed, of the prepared flesh of which, dressed in their own peculiar manner, the men partake in the tent, while the women amuse themselves with singing, after which the boy is circumcised amidst songs and loud shouts. During the Ramazan, or Mahometan Lent, they construct a place in a square form composed of loose stones, where they perform their devotions during the holy month. The arrival of strangers, however, is generally celebrated by a feast, to which the friends of the host are invited. "An Arab," we are told, "sometimes vows that he will sacrifice a camel to God if his mare should bring forth a female; in this case he slaughters the camel, and its flesh serves as a feast to all his friends."

An Arab child is immediately named when born, and the name is generally bestowed from some trifling accident, or some object which struck the mother; but besides his own name, every Arab, in conformity with the custom of the East, which we see repeatedly exemplified in the Old Testament, is called by the name of his father, and that of his tribe, or the ancestor of his family. As the child grows, the parents give themselves little trouble about his education, of which the Arabs, and especially the Bedouins, are as ignorant as they are careless. Burckhardt informs us that he was assured by a Damascus pedlar there were many tribes, not one person of whom could read or write; and as he well observes, little science can be expected among those whose minds are constantly bent on war and depredation. Their children are literally left to a state of nature, never chastised, accustomed from infancy to their wandering mode of life; and are allowed to wander about naked, playing upon the burning sands in the heat of summer. They are early taught to pelt strangers who come to the tents, to steal or secrete some trifling article belonging to them; and the more

troublesome they become, they are the more highly complimented. Polygamy is a privilege of the Bedouins, yet few of them have more than one wife; some have two, and even these are very rare; but they compensate for this voluntary monogamy by frequent changes of wives, a divorce being simply done by the husband saying to his wife, if he feels dissatisfied with her, Thou art divorced.' He then gives her a she-camel, and sends her back to her family. He is not obliged to state any reasons, and the circumstance itself is held to reflect no Didishonour on the divorced woman. vorces sometimes take place during the woman's pregnancy, in which case the mother, after the infant is born, acts as nurse till the child can run about, when the father takes it to his tent. When the mother of a family is discarded, she is sometimes allowed to live in the tent among her children, or she may return to her friends. Divorce, in short, is held as no disgrace, and the woman so situated being completely subject to her husband's whims and caprices, is free of any blemish on her character. Burckhardt says that he has seen Arabs about forty-five years of age, who were known to have had more than fifty wives, and whoever will be at the expense of a camel may divorce and change his wife as often as he pleases. The woman is also allowed a kind of divorce on her part. If she is ill treated, or unhappy in her husband's tent, she may take refuge with her own family; her husband may bribe her to return, but he cannot carry her back by force, otherwise her family would resent the violence. He can, however, refuse to pronounce the words of divorce, in which case she must remain single until he does so. If a man leaves a widow, his brother generally offers to marry her, although it is not compulsory, nor yet has he power to restrain her from marrying another. It is seldom that there is a refusal of this offer, because it keeps the family property together. A similar custom prevailed among the Jews, but in their case it was

of a compulsory nature. An Arab has an exclusive right to marry his cousin. He is not compelled to marry her, but she cannot become the wife of another without his consent. If a man permits his cousin to marry the person for whom she has a particular regard, or if a husband divorces his wife, he usually says, She was my slipper, I have cast her off, a curious illustration of which occurs in the Book of Ruth (iv. 7, 8). It will be readily seen that this facility of divorce must loosen every family tie, and have a most injurious effect upon the morals of the Arabs. The secrets of the parents and children are circulated throughout the tribes, and innumerable jealousies are excited. Yet the Arab is said to hold his parents in great respect, particularly his mother, for whose sake he often quarrels with his father, and is sometimes expelled from the paternal tent. The son, when he attains his maturity, receives a mare or a camel from his father, and immediately commences his plundering excursions, in which all the booty which falls to his lot is his own, and cannot be taken from him by his father-a regulation which will not be without its effect in exciting him to activity in his predatory habits.

In the general sketch of Arabia, under the article ARABIA, it is stated that every Arab tribe has its chief sheik, and every camp is headed by a sheik, or at least by a person of authority or influence. This is particularly the case among the Bedouins. The sheik has, however, no positive or actual authority over his tribe, unless he is a man in great repute for his personal qualities, and his skill in public and private affairs. If that be the case, his opinions will be listened to with deference; if otherwise, with contempt. The wild liberty and independence of the Arabs indeed almost border upon anarchy. Burckhardt gives a fine description of the state of the Arabs in this respect, which is here inserted with only a slight abridgment, as remarkably illustrative of the race of Ishmael-a people whose political state for ages has not suffered the smallest change. "The

sheik," he says, "does not derive any yearly income from his tribe or camp; on the contrary, he is obliged to support his title by considerable disbursements, and to extend his influence by great liberality. It is expected that he should treat strangers in a better style than any other person of the tribe; that he should maintain the poor, and divide among his friends whatever presents he may receive. His means of defraying these expenses are the tribute which he exacts from the Syrian villages, and his emolu. ments from the Mecca pilgrim caravans. When a sheik dies, he is succeeded in his dignity by one of his sons or his brothers, or some other relation distinguished for valour and liberality; but this is not a general rule. If another member of the tribe should possess those qualities in a more eminent degree, he may be chosen; yet the tribe is often divided, one party adhering to the family of the last sheik, the other choosing a new one. A sheik is sometimes deposed, and a more generous man elected in his place. The only form or ceremony attending the election of the sheik, is the announcing to him that he is henceforward to be regarded as chief of the tribe. Among the Aenezes, those personages who transact the business of the Pashas of Damascus and Bagdad are invariably sheiks. The profits accruing from these connections are much greater than any which they could derive from plunder in war; and if the Pasha's agent allows his own friends to share in his profits, he is sure to be appointed sheik. The real government of the Bedouins may be said to consist in the separate strength of their different families, who constitute so many armed bodies ever ready to punish or retaliate aggressions; and it is the counterpoise alone of these bodies that maintains peace in the tribe. Should a dispute happen between two individuals, the sheik endeavours to settle the matter, but if either party be dissatisfied, he cannot insist upon obedience. The Arab can only be persuaded by his own relations, and if they fail, war commences

between the two families, and all their kindred respectively. Thus the Bedouin truly says that he acknowledges no master but the Lord of the Universe, and, in fact, the most powerful Aeneze chief dare not inflict even a trifling punishment on the poorest man of his tribe, without incurring the risk of mortal vengeance from the individual and his relations. The sheiks, therefore, or emirs, as some style themselves, must not be regarded as princes of the Desert, a title with which some travellers have dignified them. Their prerogative consists in leading their tribe against the enemy; in conducting negotiations for peace or war, in fixing the spot for encampments, in entertaining strangers of note, &c.; and even these privileges are much limited. The sheik cannot declare war or conclude terms of peace without consulting the chief men of his tribe; if he wish to break up the camp, he must previously ask the opinions of his people concerning the security of the roads and the sufficiency of pasture and water in the districts to which he directs his view. His orders are never obeyed, but his example is generally followed. Thus, he strikes his tents and loads his camels, without desiring any one to do so; but when they know that the sheik is setting out, his Arabs hasten to join him. It likewise happens that if the sheik encamps on a spot which his people do not like, they pitch their own tents half a day's journey from his, and leave him with only a few of his nearest relations. An Arab often leaves the camp of his friends out of caprice, and joins another camp of his tribe."

A few of the kadis, or Arab judges, still exist among the Bedouins, who are in high repute for their wisdom and penetration, although they can neither read nor write, their memory being their sole guide. They decide all difficult causes, the expenses of which are sometimes very considerable. In cases which appear to baffle their sagacity, such as witnesses of equal credibility contradicting each other, the kadi sends the con

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tending parties before the mebesshae, or chief judge, one of whom is to be found in every principal tribe, and this functionary subjects them to the ordeal, a mode of trial not dissimilar to that prac tised in Europe during the Middle Ages. Corporeal punishments are unknown among the Arabs, the sentences of the sheik, the umpire, the kadi, or the mebesshae, always inflicting pecuniary fines, or fines equivalent to money, such as camels and mares. All insulting expressions, such as 'you treat your guests ill," "you are a slave," "you are a dog," every act of violence, every blow, however slight, are punished by fines in proportion to the nature of the injury. Burckhardt gives a curious illustration of these fines, and the manner in which they are exacted:" Among the fines paid for certain crimes and aggressions," he says, "that paid for killing a watchdog is remarkable. The dead dog is held up by the tail, so that its mouth just touches the ground; its length is then measured, and a stick (as long from the surface of the ground as the dog) is fixed into the earth; the person who killed the dog is then obliged to pour over the stick as much wheat as will wholly cover it, and this heap of wheat is the fine due to the owner of the dog." The Arabs are particularly strict in the matter of oaths, of which there are several in judicial use, distinguished by different degrees of sanctity and solemnity. These are generally sworn before the kadi; and it is remarkable, that an oath is never required or demanded from the pursuer or prosecutor, but always from the defendant, who, if he swears that he is innocent or unjustly prosecuted, is acquitted. Their most solemn oath is the yemein el khet,

complies, and is immediately led a certain distance from the camp, where a large circle is drawn on the sand, intersected by cross lines, within which the defender places one foot, and the pursuer also places one foot in it, who addresses him in these words, which the accused is obliged to repeat- By God, and in God, and through God, (I swear) I did not take it, and it is not in my possession.' Mahomet, it is said, once made use of this oath, and to swear it falsely would for ever disgrace an Arab. One of their peculiar institutions deserves to be mentioned, because it greatly contributes to maintain tranquillity among those who seldom acknowledge any law but that of the strongest, namely, the institution of the wasy, or guardian. "If an Arab wishes to provide for the security of his family, even after his own death, he applies (though in the prime of life) to one of his friends, and begs that he will become guardian to his children. The ceremony on this occasion is, that he present himself, leading a she-camel, before his friend: then he ties one of the hanging corners of the kerchief of his friend into a knot, and leading the camel over to him, says, 'I constitute you wasy for my children and your children-your children for my children, and your grandchildren for my grand-children.' This system is peculiarly beneficial to minors, to women, and to old men, who find it necessary to resist the demands of their sons. Thus it appears that the Arabs constitute, within their own families and those of the wasys, so many armed bodies, which, by the fear they mutually entertain of each other, preserve peace in the tribe; and perhaps nothing but an institution like this could save a nation so fierce and rapacious from being destroyed by domestic dissensions."

The warfare of this singular nation is also marked by many peculiarities. The tribes are continually at war with each other; peace is easily made, and as easily broken on the slightest pretence. Pitched battles, however, are rarely fought, and their wars are generally bloodless, the mode of surprising their enemies by a sudden

attack, and the plunder of the camp, being the great objects of the Arabs. When they fight for mere plunder, they act like cowards, though they often conduct themselves with great bravery on important occasions. A recent traveller gives the following instance of courage on the part of an Arab hero:-" A war broke out, in the year 1790, between the Ibn Fadhel and Ibn Esmeyr tribes, while most of the besiegers engaged themselves on one side or the other. After many partial encounters, the two sheiks, each with about five thousand horsemen, met near Meyerib, a small town on the Hadj road, nearly fifty miles from Damascus, on the plain of Hauran, and both determined on a general battle which should terminate the war. The armies were drawn up in sight of each other, and some slight skirmishing had commenced, when Gedoua, or, as the Bedouins in their dialect called him, Djedoua, formed the generous resolution of sacrificing his life to the glory of his tribe. He rode up to Ibn Esmeyr, took off his coat of mail and his clothes, to his shirt, and approaching the chief, kissed his beard, thereby indicating that he devoted his life to him. He then quitted the ranks of his friends, and, without any arms besides his sabre, drove his mare furiously against the enemy. His valour being well known to the troops of both parties, every one waited with anxious expectation the result of his enterprise. The strength of his arm soon opened a way among the hostile ranks; he penetrated to their standard, or merkeb, which was carried in the centre, felled to the ground the camel that bore it by a stroke on its thigh, then wheeled round, and had already regained the open space between the two armies, when he was killed by a shot from a metrás, or foot soldier. His friends, who had seen the merkeb fall, rushed with a loud cheer upon their enemies, and completely routed them; above five hundred foot soldiers having been slain on that day. Whenever the merkeb falls, the battle is considered as lost by the party to whom it belongs.

sacre.

The Aenese Bedouins never attack by night, that being regarded as treachery; and as the female sex is always respected, they also purposely refrain from night attacks on camps, lest the women's apartments might be entered by mistake, which would not only excite a more determined resistance, but perhaps a general masHence few persons are killed in their predatory attacks. The surprise of a camp, however, often proves unsuccessful, intimation being given through a variety of channels. The Arabs term those who give such intimation nezeir. The general cause of war is a jealousy about watering places and pasture grounds: yet the dispute is as easily settled as it was readily excited, and the treaty of peace is concluded by the sheiks of the contending tribes under the tent of a third or neutral party. If any particular tribe engaged in the combat is dissatisfied with the conditions of peace as negotiated by the sheik, that functionary must attend to the remonstrances of his people, and he sends a verbal or written message to the sheik of the opposite party that hostilities must be renewed. In former times, the Bedouins refrained from preda. tory incursions during the sacred month of Ramazan, or Mahometan Lent, the rites of which they most religiously observed; but now they make no scruple of attacking their enemies during that season, as well as at any other period. Yet there are three days in every lunar month, during which they will not fight, namely, the 6th, 16th, and night of the 21st; they are said to abstain from fighting on Wednesdays, being persuaded that if they did so they would lose the battle. Mr Burckhardt, in his valuable posthumous work entitled " Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys, collected during his Travels in the East," also supplies us with some interesting notices respecting the thár, or blood revenge of this singular Asiatic people; and he alleges, that this institution has been a great means of preventing the warlike tribes of Arabia from exterminating each other. Without it, he justly observes, these wars in

the Desert would be as sanguinary as those of the Mamelukes in Egypt; but the terrible blood revenge renders the most inveterate wars nearly bloodless. “It is a received law among the Arabs,” says that enterprising traveller, "that whoever sheds the blood of a man, owes blood on that account to the family of the slain person. This law is sanctioned by the Koran (ii. 173), which says, 'O true believers! the law of retaliation is ordained to you for the slain, the free shall die for the free,' &c. But the same book (xvii. 35) says— And whoever shall be unjustly slain, we have given to his heir the power of demanding satisfaction, but let him not exceed beyond the bounds of moderation,' viz. in putting the murderer to a cruel death, or avenging his friend's blood on any other person than the man who actually killed him. The Arabs, however, do not strictly observe this command of their holy volume; they claim the blood not only from the actual homicide, but from all his relations, and it is these claims that constitute the right of thár, or the blood revenge. This rests with the khomse, or fifth generation, those only having a right to avenge a slain parent whose fourth lineal ascendant is, at the same time, the fourth lineal ascendant of the person slain; and, on the other side, only those male kindred of the homicide are liable to pay with their own for the blood shed, whose fourth lineal ascendant is at the same time the fourth lineal ascendant of the homicide. The present generation is thus comprised within the limits of the khomse. If the family of the man killed should in revenge kill two of the homicide's family, the latter retaliate by the death of one. If one only be killed, the affair rests there, and all is quiet; but the quarrel is soon revived by hatred and revenge." It appears, however, that a commutation of this dreadful thár may be effected by the homicide or his friends offering a certain sum fixed by their ancient laws, which is generally accepted. The price varies in different tribes, and according to the affinity of the person slain. If no such