others, Polycarp, its venerable bishop, suffered martyrdom, but there is no proof that this continued ten years or ten days; and as it took place more than seventy years from the time of this prophecy, it seems too distant to be that here foretold by our Lord, who addressed the Smyrnaens then living. Besides, this persecution extended to the other churches of Asia, who would therefore have had a similar warning. It seems most probable, on the whole, that the persecution foretold in these words was fulfilled in that generation, and that the Jews, who are described as acting against that church under the influence of Satan, were the authors of the persecution. The prophecy thus fulfilled would serve a temporary purpose; it would convince the Seven Churches that the revelation which foretold it was from God; and that therefore the remaining predictions of the same prophecy would also receive their accomplishment; and it would occasion them to revere, and preserve, and faithfully deliver down to posterity, the book in which they were contained." addition to these judicious observations of Dr Woodhouse, two other expositions have been given of this peculiar announcement to the church of Smyrna. Like the number seven, which often expresses fulness and perfection, the number ten is often used to denote frequency and abundance.

In

Thus, in Gen. xxxi. 7,41, "Thou hast changed my wages ten times," that is, frequently changed them. "These men have tempted me now these ten times," Numb. xiv. 22. "These ten times have ye reproached me," Job xix. 3. "He found them ten times better than all the magicians," Dan. i. 20. According to this interpretation, the ten days of tribulation announced to the "angel" of the church in Smyrna would denote frequency and abundance of persecution. Again, the ten days are interpreted as expressing the shortness of persecution, in the same sense as the phrase is used by Terence:-" Decem dierum vix mi est familia-I have enjoyed my family but a short time." (Heaut. act. v. s. i.

v. 36.) In whatsoever way we view the prophecy, it certainly indicates a time of fierce persecution; and when we narrate the history of Smyrna in its proper place, to which the reader is referred, we shall see this far-famed city stained with the blood of martyrs, giving her bishop to the flames, and having her Christian profession and fidelity literally tried even "unto death."

Smyrna, at the present moment, is of great commercial importance. It endured a variety of vicissitudes previous to the fall of the Greek Empire; but after the firm establishment of the Ottoman power commerce began to revive, and Smyrna to flourish. The citizens, freed from their apprehensions of warlike attacks and sieges, left by degrees the precincts of its castle, which now overlooks the town, and the city "slid as it were down the slope towards the sea," and left the ruins of former habitations upon the hill behind. The church of Smyrna still exists, composed of Greeks, Armenians, Latins or Roman Catholics, and Protestants. Of the latter there are two congregations, the one served by the English chaplain at the Factory, and the other belongs to the Dutch nation. The city is also a kind of head-quarters for the operations of the "Church Missionary Society" throughout the Levant, and in Asia Minor. See SMYRNA.

3. PERGAMOS.-Leaving the rich, flourishing, and important city of Smyrna, we again make a transition not exactly to such appalling desolation as that of Ephesus, but to cities, the present condition of which presents a melancholy contrast to their former grandeur and prosperity. Pergamos, now called Bergamo, is situated sixty-four miles N.N.W. of Smyrna, on the banks of the Caicus, which falls into the Bay of Scanderli, at no great distance, in the Mediterranean. Pergamos, once the metropolis of Mysia, and the seat of the Attalian kings, is celebrated in antiquity as the capital of a powerful and independent kingdom, a seat of Oriental learning, containing a noble library of 200,000 volumes of

manuscripts, which rivalled the collection of the Ptolemies, and as the early and impressive scene of Christian triumph. Pergamos is not mentioned in any other book or epistle of the New Testament, and no information can be obtained respecting the introduction of the gospel into the city. It is evident, however, that the church in Pergamos contained many members; the believers there had been already tried by persecution, and one of their number, Antipas, had obtained the martyr's crown. No account has been preserved respecting this martyr in our times. In the Acts of Antipas, which are still extant, it is related that he was one of our Saviour's first disciples, and afterwards bishop of Pergamos, and that he was put to death by being inclosed in a burning brazen bull; but as the Romans never put any person to death in this manner, the story, like the work itself, has been treated as false and counterfeit. There is no notice of the date or the occasion on which the "faithful martyr" was slain, although it is conjectured that it was during the persecution of Domitian. "For the space of thirty years," observes Milner, "since the time of Nero, the Christians had been permitted to prosecute in peace the propagation of their religion; and to attribute the martyrdom of Antipas to his reign is improbable, as there is reason to conclude that the persecution was then confined to the capital (Rome), and we have no certainty that the church in Pergamos was then formed. It is not unlikely that the "faithful martyr" was the victim of a local tumult, as the introduction of the gospel into such a place as Pergamos, one of the chief strongholds of Satan, would excite the hostility of the people, and give rise to insult and outrage; but the believers stood firm in the fiery ordeal to which they were subject, and maintained their integrity and virtue in spite of the efforts of an infuriated populace."

It is equally impossible to discover the "angel" of the church in Pergamos who received the Apocalyptic epistle, and

even tradition is silent on that point. The believers at Pergamos are commended for their "works," although they dwelt "where Satan's seat is," and for their faithfulness in maintaining the truth. It is evident from the tenor of the Apocalyptic epistle, that the citizens of Pergamos were deeply sunk in vice and superstition, and were attached to the most degrading and abominable rites of pagan idolatry. Their city is emphatically described as the place "where Satan dwelleth," and it is singular that on the Pergamean coins a serpent is engraved as an emblem of a tutelary divinity, thus affording an analogy to the old serpent, the dragon, as Satan is termed in Scripture. But notwithstanding the flattering commendation bestowed on the "angel" in Pergamos, for his integrity, constancy, and resolution in maintaining the faith in a place so notoriously wicked, he is warned of those whom heresy had infected, and whose opinions he is not to tolerate or sanction, namely, those " that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumbling-block before the Children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication;" and he is also informed that he has "them that hold the doctrines of the Nicolaitanes, which thing I hate." He is therefore commanded in the strongest manner to

repent, or else," says the Divine Head of the Church, "I will come unto thee quickly, and will fight against them with the sword of my mouth."

The "doctrine of Balaam," with which the Pergamean church appears to have been infected to a great degree, refers to the defection of Israel through Balaam's artifice, as narrated by Moses in the Book of Numbers. "And Israel," says the inspired historian, "abode in Shittim, and the people began to commit fornication with the daughters of Moab. And they called the people to the sacrifices of their gods, and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods, and Israel joined himself unto Baal-peor." That this was a stratagem of Balaam, the

result of mortified pride and disappointed avarice, while he was at the same time coveting the gold of Balak, is evident from what Moses says in a succeeding chapter, after the Israelites had routed the Midianites, slain five of their princes, and put Balaam to death. Referring to the Midianitish women who were among the captives, he says, "These caused the Children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the Lord in the matter of Peor," Numb. xxxi. 16. Balaam advised the women of the Moabites and Midianites to expose themselves to the lust of the Israelites, that by this means they might be seduced into idolatry, and incur the divine vengeance. This snare succeeded; the Israelites not only lived in unrestrained licentiousness with these women, but worshipped the deities of the Moabites, and "did eat," namely, of the Moabitish sacrifices an act of gross idolatry, by which they acknowledged the gods of Moab, and renounced their allegiance to the only living and true God. An imitation of this conduct of the Israelites had taken place in the Pergamean church. Improper and licentious individuals had at an early period got admission into this as well as into others of the Apostolic churches, who are described by St John, St Peter, and St Jude, as the "followers of Balaam," from the close correspondence of their conduct and character with the Aramæan seer. Having selfish purposes to serve, and leading profligate lives, the liberty proclaimed by the gospel was extended to a toleration of the most odious practices and obscenities, and a total freedom from moral obligation was maintained. These destructive doctrines, so much in unison with the natural carnality of man, were certain to obtain the support of the viciously inclined portions of the Christian societies. They succeeded in seducing many from the pure doctrines of the gospel, and thus the "grace of God" was literally "turned into lasciviousness." Ina city so notoriously immoral as Pergamos, persons of this description had gained

admission into the church, and this laxity of discipline and outrageous conduct occasioned the sharp rebuke given to the "angel," to be by him administered to those who associated the Christian name with scenes of obscenity and pollution.

In addition to the "doctrine of Balaam" with which the Pergamean church was infected, it appears that some of its members "held the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes." Our information respecting this heresy, as of many others of the first century, is extremely limited and imperfect; but the sect of the Nicolaitanes is supposed to have been founded by Nicolas, a proselyte of Antioch, and one of the first seven deacons of the church of Jerusalem. The distinguishing tenet of the Nicolaitanes, as represented by ecclesiastical historians, was, that married women should be common, to take away all occasion of jealousy, that meats offered to idols could be lawfully eaten, and other dogmas, which Theodoret well describes as abounding with folly and libertinism. Some ancient writers, however, maintain that the name Nicolaitanes is merely the designation of the sect, and that it did not originate with Nicolas, who was colleague with the proto-martyr, St Stephen, in the deaconate. Clement, Eusebius, and Theodoret, while they condemn the heresy of the Nicolaitanes, do not say that Nicolas was one. Whatever may

have been the character of their founder, it is evident that those heretics adopted principles utterly at variance with the purity of the gospel. Such, then, was the state of the church in Pergamos, at the time its "angel" received the divine message in the Apocalyptic epistle; vital godliness was not wanting in a city which is termed emphatically "Satan's seat," but the situation of the church was nevertheless critical and dangerous. Heresy prevailed to a considerable extent, and it was necessary to cut off the carnal professors to prevent the general corruption of the community. Our Saviour here assumes the office of a judge, and presents himself armed with a twoedged sword, to make an excision of the

unholy intruders, and to expel them from the communion of his saints. The faithful are reproached for their laxity in allowing them to remain in church fellowship, threatened with punishment if they continue in their indifference, while at the same time they are promised ample rewards if they are obedient, zealous, and persevering. "To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna; and I will give him a white stone, and on the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth saving he that receiveth it;" all of which allegorical language, referring to several Eastern customs, denoted the munificent recompense they would receive if they adopted his warning to "repent."

The subsequent history of the church. in Pergamos is little known. It shared the fate of its sister churches, and had its own share of persecution until the time of Constantine. For several centuries its bishop continued to attend the Councils of the Church, and Barlamenas of Pergamos was present at the Synod of Antioch, which was held to settle the disputes caused by the publication of the Nicene Creed. At length all traces of it disappeared. Modern Pergamos, or Bergamo, contains a population of upwards of 15,000 inhabitants. Dr Smith, when he visited the city in 1671, describes the state of the Christians as deplorable, "there being not above fifteen families of them." The amount of the present Christian population is about fifteen hundred Greeks, who are under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Elaia, a suffragan of the bishop of Ephesus; about two hundred Armenian Christians, who have a church; and nearly one hundred Jews, with a synagogue; all the other inhabitants being Mahometans. The threat to the "angel" that the Head of the Church would "come quickly" unless they repented, and "fight against them with the sword of his mouth,” has been almost literally fulfilled, although its "candlestick" is not removed out of "his place" like that of Ephesus; but its literature, arts, and religion, have alike disappeared, and under the Ottoman

sway it is little better than a scene of spiritual blindness and degradation. See PERGAMOS.

4. THYATIRA. Leaving Pergamos, let us proceed to Thyatira, about fifty miles to the south-east of the former city. Crossing the rivers Caicus and Hyllus on the journey, we come to Thyatira, now called Ak-hissar, or the White Castle, by the Turks, near the northern confines of ancient Lydia, on the small river Lycus, and not far from its source. For a long period Tyria, a town in the neighbourhood of Ephesus, was mistaken for the Thyatira of sacred history, but discoveries of inscriptions near Ak-hissar no longer leave a doubt that it is built on the site of Thyatira to which St John wrote. Few remains of antiquity exist at Ak-hissar to denote the former extent and consequence of Thyatira, the buildings having been either buried under accumulated rubbish, destroyed by the Turks, or incorporated in modern edifices.

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Very few ancient buildings," observes Dr Smith, "remain here; we could not find any ruins of churches, and inquiring of the Turks about it, they told us there were several great buildings of stone under ground, which we were very apt to believe from what we had observed in other places, that when digging somewhat deep, they met with strong foundations that without all question have formerly supported great buildings." In its ancient state, it was a city of considerable importance, its inhabitants were devoted to commerce, and the country in its neighbourhood was celebrated for its fertility. Situated in a plain bounded on every side by mountains, this early seat of Christianity appears to have been a favourite resort as well of the opulent as of the industrious, who honoured Diana as the presiding goddess of the surrounding mountains.

It is not known by whom the gospel was first introduced into Thyatira. When St Paul and Silas were at Philippi in Macedonia, Lydia, a native of Thyatira, received them into her house, and was afterwards baptized by St Paul. Through

her the gospel might have been preached in Thyatira, either by representing to the Apostle the state of her native city, or otherwise by inducing him to visit it in person. The "angel" of this church at the date of the Apocalyptic Epistle is also unknown. It appears, however, that Christianity had made very considerable progress in Thyatira, and its church evidently occupies a prominent place among the churches of Asia Minor.

The believers at Thyatira are characterised in the Epistle by varied and almost opposite qualities. They are commended for the lustre of their piety, their "works, and charity, and service, and faith, and patience." From the language in which these virtues are expressed, there must have been many members of this church walking in the light of gospel truth, yet abominations had been introduced by the "woman Jezebel," which are specified in terms of the strongest reprobation. Some of the members of the church in Thyatira are not comprehended in the Apocalyptic Epistles (verse 24), because they had not been seduced into the practices here denounced. The "angel" is severely censured for suffering "the woman Jezebel, which calleth herself a prophetess, to teach and seduce my servants to commit fornication, and to eat things sacrificed unto idols."

The phrase, "the woman Jezebel," has given rise to a considerable diversity of opinion among commentators as to its real meaning. "This," says Dr Woodhouse, "might be literally a woman of great rank and influence at Thyatira, who seduced the Christians to intermix idolatry and heathen impurities with their religion. Such seducers were in the church in St Paul's time, 2 Cor. vi. 14; and the history of Queen Jezebel, that patroness of idolatry, as delivered in the Book of Kings, shows that such a woman would be fitly represented under that name. But it may also be applied in a symbolical sense, for thus by a woman is often signified a city, a nation, a church. This passage is so understood by the

VOL. I.

Venerable Bede, who explains the term Jezebel to mean a synagogue of false apostles pretending to be Christians; and it may signify a set of seducers, like that described in the 14th and 15th verses of this chapter," referring to the case of the church of Pergamos. It is unquestionable, that the name Jezebel is often used by the early Christian writers, as it has not unfrequently been used by modern ones, as a term of reproach; and Justina, a patroness of Arianism, had it profusely bestowed on her. The first supposition of Dr Woodhouse, that this figurative Jezebel might have been a woman of rank in Thyatira connected with the church, who had corrupted the faith, after the example of the idolatrous queen of Israel, is the view taken by Grotius and Calmet; while the other supposition, that of the Venerable Bede, that the name means a set of false teachers who infested the church of Thyatira, is maintained by Irenæus, Methodius, Hammond, Vitringas, and other writers both ancient and modern. A third supposition has been made, that the wife of the "angel" is here mentioned. This is founded on a different reading of the text in a very important MS. produced by Griesbach. It is evident, however, that as the party here mentioned held the very same tenets as the Nicolaitanes, and are charged with the very same conduct as those heretics and those who maintained the "doctrine of Balaam." namely,

seducing my servants to commit fornication, and to eat things sacrificed unto idols," that a branch of the church of Thyatira, and not an individual female, is here spoken of by metaphor. It was common in Hebrew allegory to describe the Jewish Church as a "virgin," to denote purity, and as a bride," to indicate firm attachment to the truth; and hence, when the Israelites made their periodical relapses into idolatry, the Church is described as a "wanderer from her husband," and an "harlot." Christian Church is mentioned in precisely similar terms. She is the "bride, the Lamb's wife;" and in the Apocalypse she is said to "commit fornication with

The