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gardens and groves, are justly celebrated as exhibiting a scene of fairy-land scarcely paralleled among the cities of the East. The best view of the city is said to be from the top of the mountain called Salhia or Saleyyeh, which rises nearly a thousand feet above the level of the town, and from which Mahomet beheld the groves and plains of Sham Scheereeff the beautiful. On the summit of this mountain is the Kobat el Nassr, or Arch of Victory, a name given to a ruined building of small dimensions, a supposed tomb or residence of a sheik named Nassr, but for what purpose, or by whom erected, is not correctly ascertained. The view is described as comprising the city with its numerous mosques and minarets, the extensive woods and gardens by which it is surrounded, all clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, in every different shade from the deepest to the lightest green. The plain is extremely level, and stretches out towards the east farther than the eye can reach. Though the plain is so extensive, it does not exhibit that rich and luxuriant vegetation which adorns the banks of the Jordan and the Nile. "It is only," says Dr Richardson, "in the immediate environs of the city that this is so conspicuous, and the view from the mountain is but the verdure of trees; the bright sun and the cloudless sky that light up the scenery in the Eastern world, which, as long as the verdure of the fields remains unscorched by its rays, diffuse such a charm throughout the landscape, that we should look in vain for any thing similar in those countries where a dense and hazy atmosphere prevails." "There are few objects upon earth," says Mr Hardy, a Wesleyan Missionary, "that come nearer to the ideal form the mind gives to the New Jerusalem. The plain extends as far as the eye can reach, and at the time I mounted this elevation, and looked upon the enchanting sight it commands, the sky and the clouds were exhibiting those varied tints that make any prospect beautiful, and rendered this almost divine. In the Canticles, the nose of the bride is compared to the tower of

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Lebanon that looketh towards Damascus,' and may not this expression refer to the prospect from this place, and mean surrounded by beauty?" Mr Buckingham likewise gives a short but pleasing account of the view of this city. "We came suddenly," he says, "in sight of Damascus, seated on a beautifully wooded and extremely fertile plain, the prospect of which delighted me so much that I rode for a full hour unconscious of any thing but the beauty of the scene. entering Damascus from the south-east quarter, I was charmed beyond expression with the olive grounds, fruitful gardens, and running streams through which the city is approached. We entered the city through the Bab-el-Ullah, or the Gate of God, so called from its leading to Jerusalem and Mecca, both holy cities, and both places of pilgrimage, the last only to Mahometans, but the first to all the several classes of Jews, Christians, and Moslems, by each of whom it is held in high estimation, and called by all ElKhods-el-Shereef, or the Holy and the

Noble."

But if Damascus be so beautiful from without, its internal appearance presents a different aspect. In the cleanliness of the streets and solidity of the buildings it must yield the palm to Aleppo, and in magnificence it cannot be compared to Constantinople. The streets are generally narrow and irregular, though tolerably well paved, and some of them have elevated footpaths; they are consequently well shaded from the sun. "Broad streets," observes Dr Richardson, “are no luxury in warm climates, and here I felt the full force of the remark of Tacitus, that Nero spoiled Rome by broad streets." The streets of Damascus, however, are wider than those of the Eastern cities in general, and Mr Buckingham describes the street by which he entered the city leading from the Bab-el-Ullah, or Gate of God, as "at least a mile in length, and equal in breadth to any of the great thoroughfares of London." The houses are for the most part very mean in external appearance, being composed

of wooden frame-work, the interstices of which are filled up with sun-burnt bricks, and the whole is covered with a white or yellowish plaster, which is generally kept very clean; but the houses in the interior of the city are built with more solid materials, and have generally two storeys, and flat roofs. In the narrower streets they have very few windows, small doors, and unadorned fronts, which, joined to the silence which reigns, gives them a dull and monotonous aspect. But the principal streets, as in other cities, present a different appearance. "There is scarcely a single building," we are told by Mr Hardy, "which does not display some taste in the manner of its erection, and the mosques and public edifices are without number. There is nothing very splendid in the appearance of any one particular place, but there is a charm produced by the purely Oriental character of the whole that tells powerfully of the days of the Caliphs, and gives something like reality to the fictions connected with their history." The streets are nearly all protected by strong doors. Notwithstanding the plain and unpromising external appearance of many of the private houses, the interior of most of them is comfortable, and of some of them splendid. They are almost all built on the same plan. A narrow door of entrance from the street opens into a court, three sides of which are occupied by buildings, in the centre of which is a marble fountain diffusing freshness around. Like other Mussulman towns, Damascus has no square or public place, the more urgent necessity of guarding against the rays of a continually burning sun occasioning the citizens to restrict the width of their streets, that they may more easily shade them with foliage.

The bazars of Damascus are numerous, and exact representations of what we are accustomed to ascribe to such places. Among the multitudes that throng them are persons of every variety of dress, from the rich turbans and flowing robes of the merchants, to the sheep-skin coverings of the mountaineers and the dark

costumes of the wandering Arabs. The crowds which fill these bazars form a singular contrast with the solitude of the other streets of the city, in which there appear to be neither workshops nor warehouses. In these bazars are several small ovens, where they are continually baking cakes and various kinds of pastry; there are also shops for the sale of liquors, composed of sugar, raisins, apricots, and other fruits. The time when the greatest number of people are to be met with in these places is from morning until one or two in the afternoon, about which hour the merchants generally retire, but the workshops remain open, and the workmen remain at their respective employments the whole day. The dress of the inhabitants, as seen at these places, is a mixture of the costume of the Arabs and Turks. The ladies dress in plain white, wearing wide pantaloons when they walk out in the streets, and it is only when making purchases that their faces can be

seen.

The great khan of Damascus is described as one of the finest commercial buildings in the world, its area being nearly equal to that of the Royal Exchange at London. Its architecture is of the finest style of the Saracenic order, built of the most solid masonry, covered with a vaulted roof, and lighted by a cupola. "The basement in the interior," says Mr Fuller, "is occupied by large shops like those of the bazar, closed by falling shutters, which, when let down, form a show-board for the goods and a seat for the proprietor. Above these shops are two tiers of arched corridors, each of which communicates with a range of commodious apartments, occupied by the merchants as counting-houses and magazines. From these arcades it was amusing to look down into the interior of the khan, and observe the various characters collected there-the Damascene Turk, distinguishable by the dignity of his carriage and the plainness of his dress; the Bagdad merchant, glittering in gay colours and rich shawls; Jews, Greeks, Armenians, in their sombre blue robes; Persians, with their black curly

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heads, close vests, and shaggy caps; Bedouins; Albanian soldiers; black slaves, and bare-legged porters, and camel-driBales of merchandize were lying on the ground, and the tinkling of the bells of camels frequently announced that a fresh caravan was coming to deposit its stores; but when, in the midst of this bustle, the muezzin from the tower of the great mosque announced the hour of prayer, business was instantly suspended, and the faithful were soon engaged in performing their ablutions at the fountain in the centre of the khan, or in spreading their satcherdehs, or carpets used for kneeling upon at prayers, on their shopboards."

There are khans or caravanserais appropriated for the reception of those goods at Damascus which are brought in caravans from various quarters by wholesale merchants, who sell them to the retail dealers. The city contains upwards of five hundred houses, which may be called palaces; but as their magnificence is confined to the interior, their fronts being undistinguished from other houses, they do not contribute to embellish the place. The baths of Damascus are generally large, well served and amply supplied with water, but they are inferior to those of Smyrna and Constantinople. There are numerous cafés in various parts of the city. The shops are well filled with merchandize, the silk warehouses contain immense stores, and the fine cloths of India and Persia are to be found; but the greater part of the articles are manufactured on the spot, there being reckoned upwards of four thousand manufacturers of silk and cotton stuffs at Damascus. The shopkeepers are described as clean, well-dressed, and civil to strangers, and if they have not the articles requested, they will walk, unsolicited, and show the party where they are to be got. "In Damascus as in Cairo," says Dr Richardson, "each class of commodities has its own class of bazars. There are whole streets in which nothing but shoes and boots are sold; others in which nothing but ready-made clothes are sold; others for the silks of Constantin

ople, which are by far the finest and the most valued; but the articles chiefly worn in Syria are of the manufacture of Damascus, and are a mixture of silk and cotton. They are extremely durable, and some of the patterns are remarkably handsome. There is one large bazar for the goldsmiths, where we saw not less than two hundred of them seated together in one room, each with his anvil, hammer, and drawers before him; but this should rather be called a manufactory than a bazar, for on entering it, a person was stunned with noise as if he had been in a foundry. There are also bazars for swords and military accoutrements, but the character of Damascus blades has much declined. Each country seems to think that it possesses the art in an equal degree of perfection. Constantinople regards her manufacture of swords as the best, and Cairo, Aleppo, and Bagdad, all put forth a claim for the same distinction."

The principal products of the country about Damascus are wheat, barley, hemp, grapes, apricots, pistachio nuts, and every kind of fruit. Sugar is obtained from Europe and Egypt, and rice entirely from Egypt. The fertility of the earth is so constant that a year of scarcity is unknown. The climate is mild in general; in winter it is not too cold, and in summer the excessive heat is modified by the freshness of the waters, the shade of the trees, and the disposition of the houses. Snow sometimes falls in the city; it invariably falls every year on the mountains of Lebanon, and covers the summits of the most elevated hills perpetually. Ice is thus early procured, and the use of artificial ice-houses is unnecessary. As it respects the condition of the citizens, the lower orders appear to be comfortable, and few beggars are to be seen. There is a considerable number of large and small schools for children, but the principal study is that of the Koran, which comprehends all other branches. The inhabitants of Damascus, bigoted and untractable, have always evinced a bitter antipathy towards Euro

peans, aggravated of late by the improve ments adopted both in Turkey and Egypt. "The fanatical population of Damascus, and the surrounding country," says Lamartine, "render necessary the most rigid precaution on the part of the Franks who venture to visit that country. The Damascenes are the only people in the East who cherish a religious hatred and horror of the European name and costume. They are the only Mahometan people who have refused to admit the consuls or even the consular agents of the Christian powers. Damascus is a holy city, fanatical and free; nothing must sully its sanctity."

The Great Mosque, called the Mosque of St John the Baptist, has been already mentioned. It is a magnificent building, in the form of an oblong square, composed of three long aisles running parallel to each other, and divided by rows of fine Corinthian columns. The other mosques and chapels are upwards of one hundred, but none of them is of particular notice. The Jews have eight or ten synagogues, and are generally unmolested by their Moslem neighbours. The Greek Patriarch of Antioch has an episcopal see at Damascus, and receives fixed contributions levied on the baptisms, marriages, and burials of Christians of every denomination. The different Christian communions of Greeks, Maronites, Syrians, and Armenians, have each a church; and there are three convents of Franciscan monks, one composed of Spanish Observantines, and the other two of Italian Capuchins; all these monks are styled Missionaries. The Catholics have no distinct churches, but celebrate divine service in the chapels of the convents. Dr Hogg informs us that some of these Christian communities are in a deplorable condition of poverty and privation. In the chapel of one of the Roman Catholic convents, Mr Buckingham heard a sermon, of which he gives a very animated description. "The church," he says, "was small, and but meanly furnished, compared with the gorgeous decorations of the Catholic places of worship in general. After the mass, a sermon was delivered

in the Arabic language by a young Spaniard, whose appearance and complexion indicated an ardent, melancholy, and enthusiastic temperament. The subject of his discourse was the history and purpose of the crucifixion, in treating of which he used an eloquence that was peculiarly impressive. In dilating on the barbarities of those who committed this indignity on the Son of God, he wrought his hearers up to a pitch of the highest indignation; and when the fervour or the frenzy of his audience was at its acmé, he strengthened the effect of his climax by producing suddenly from beneath his robe a large crucifix, which he summoned all to behold, while he pointed to the bleeding wounds still streaming with the warm and crimson blood that Christ had shed for their salvation. Every eye was fixed, every feature was motionless, and every heart seemed dissolving away in tears. As a stroke of impassioned and effective oratory, it was one of the most impressive things that I had ever witnessed, and its reality and close connexion with time and place gave it a force that no words can describe. It reminded me of the funeral oration of Mark Antony over the bleeding body of the murdered Cæsar, and the celebrated dagger scene of Burke in the English House of Commons; but as the subject was loftier, the speaker regarded as clothed with more sacred authority, and the auditors more unanimous in their feelings than could have been the case on either of those two occasions to which it bore a resemblance, the whole scene was more solemn and imposing. The church was at the same time suddenly filled with a corresponding gloom, by the closing up of some of the principal avenues through which it received the sun's rays from above; and a 'dim religious light,' which is so favourable to the indulgence of the kind of devotional ardour that it was the object of the combination to produce, reigned over all, and shut out the intrusive brilliance of the 'gaudy, blabbing, and remorseless day. This powerful appeal to

the passions of love, pity, sorrow, and revenge (for the detestation inculcated towards the murderers of Jesus, and the unbelievers who still resisted the Catholic interpretation of his faith, was not in the spirit of Him who exclaimed even on the cross, Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do), was one of the most skilful efforts towards the union of fervid eloquence with theatrical effect, and such as in the early ages no doubt stimulated the enterprise of the Crusaders to take vengeance on those infidels who insulted the religion of Christ in the very cradle of its truth, and violated the sanctuaries which they deemed it their highest glory to rescue and defend. It was followed up by fine peals of music from the organ, and the hymns of choris. ters, who were chiefly children of both sexes, and who sang in response to each other, in the Arabic tongue also, in a manner resembling the songs sung in response by the boatmen of the Nile."

The castle of Damascus, to which the street called Straight leads from the eastern gate of the city, is a large pile of building surrounded by a broad and deep ditch of rustic masonry. It appears to be a work of great antiquity, having undergone alterations, additions, and repairs at different periods. Some of the stones of the oldest parts of this pile are of very large dimensions. Within the gate are brass guns mounted on various parts of the walls; the fortress, however, is described as being greatly neglected. It commands a fine view of all the central parts of the city, including the Pacha's residence, the principal mosques, many of the large streets, the beautiful gardens north of the town, and the mountain Salheyyah to the west. The Pacha's palace is at no great distance-a range of buildings containing the armoury, from which those who conduct the annual caravan to Mecca are supplied with match-locks, blunderbusses, and other weapons of defence. When Mr Hardy visited Damascus in 1833, this palace lay in ruins, having been reduced to that condition by an insurrection of the populace when

the Grand Seignior was nominal sovereign.

"I visited the ruins of the palace of the late governor. The people rose up against him, being irritated by his extortions, overpowered his guard, levelled his palace with the ground, and massacred him, and the whole of his family and dependants." Yet the citizens of Damascus, according to this traveller, appear to have gained nothing in their own estimation from the change of rulers. "The people were disaffected towards Ibrahim Pacha. When under the nominal government of the Sultan they could act according to their own wishes, as they were far removed from the seat of power, but they are now ruled with a rod of iron."

But the spirit of enlightened improvement has extended even to this celebrated and fanatical city, and those usages and restrictions which were scrupulously retained at Damascus, while they had ceased to exist in almost every other part of Syria, are gradually disappearing. The citizens entertained, as they do still to a certain extent, a peculiar aversion to European costume; the sight of a hat, which reminded them of some of their own cooking utensils, excited their violent exasperation. Their aversion, even at the present moment, to this article of European dress is so great, that one of their forms of cursing is, May you wear a hat! "I was one day standing," says Mr Fuller, "in the great khan, when an unfortunate Cephaloniote Greek, either ignorant of the custom of the place, or vain of the Frank (European) clothes, which perhaps he had but lately assumed, made his appearance in that attire. A large crowd instantly gathered around him, and the process of stripping was forthwith commenced. His hat, an object to him of peculiar pride, but to the Turks of peculiar aversion, was struck off, and kicked contemptuously along the ground; his coat was rent into shreds, and he would soon have been turned adrift in a state of nature, if compassion for my fellow-citizen had not led me to interfere in his behalf. I desired the interpreter to represent to some of the more respectable of the spectators, with several

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