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Greek, with Cicero's Latin interpretation; the places where Cicero's translation is wanting being supplied. This learned work he dedicated to the States of Holland and West Friesland. Scaliger, M. de Thou, and Lipsius, speak of this edition with the highest praise. Lipsius, in thanking Grotius for his Aratus, says, that notwithstanding his childhood, he looks on him as his friend; and congratulated him that, though so very young, he had, by force of genius and labour, accomplished what few could do in the flower of their age.

In 1603, Grotius was made advocategeneral, which office he did not at all like, though he did infinite honour to it. His brilliant success at the bar, however, procured him a very considerable promotion. In July, 1608, he married Mary Reigesberg, whose highest encomium was, that she was worthy of Grotius for her husband. The most perfect harmony subsisted between them, and Grotius held her in the highest esteem. Grotius at that time began to enter into the affairs of the republic; and, by his anxiety to become serviceable to his country, he heaped coals of fire upon his own head. In the year 1608, while the truce between the Spaniards and the United Provinces was negotiating, Arminius and Gomarus were at issue on some doctrinal points. The doctrine of Arminius was directly contrary to that of Calvin, and he was accused before the Synod of Rotterdam, in which the party of Gomarus prevailed. Arminius presented a petition to the States of Holland, requesting that the grand council would take cognizance of this dispute. His adversaries declared that a theological contest ought to be decided by a church judicature. Arminius's petition was however granted, and the magistrates promised to have the affair discussed in a synod. The dispute continued, and became daily more warm. Arminius, however, dying, Grotius wrote a eulogium, in verse, and by that means offended Gomarus, though he did not enter into the nature of their disputes. The partisans of Arminius drew up a remonstrance, which they addressed to the state; and from that time were styled Remonstrants. This remonstrance not satisfying the Gomarists, they opposed to it a contra-remonstrance, which gained them the appellation of Contra-remonstrants. The disputes between the Arminians and the Gomarists were very vehement. Hence

arose a grand contest, who ought to be judge in these matters. The Arminians declared for the civil magistrate, and the Gomarists for the power to be invested in the hands of the clergy. They accordingly separated from the Remonstrants; took possession of the churches by force; stirred up sedition; wrote libels; and deposed the Arminian ministers. It was at this time of confusion Grotius was nominated pensionary of Rotterdam, and was ordered to go to England. It was supposed he had instructions to get the king to favour the Arminians. On that subject he had several conferences with his majesty. On his return to Holland, he found the disturbances increased, and he was appointed to draw up an edict. This edict gave great offence. The Gomarists complained that it was too much in favour of the Arminians. The riots increased, and Grotius proposed to the States of Holland, that the magistrates should be empowered to raise troops for the security of the town. This step was the ruin of Grotius; and, after much more dispute, he, with some others, were arrested by the Prince of Orange, and were treated most cruelly. His wife drew up two petitions, to be allowed to reside with him, which, even though he was ill, was refused; and when he asked for some paper to make his defence, only half a sheet was allowed him. On the 18th of May, sentence was pronounced against him by the commissioners. In consequence of this sentence, the States-General ordered him to be carried from the Hague, to the fortress of Louvestein. His father asked permission to see him, but was denied; and his wife was only allowed to go to him, on condition that she never left him. Exile and captivity, far from being irksome to Grotius, was a pleasure. Study became his business and consolation. His time passed fast and pleasantly. He wrote much, and he always wrote well. He there composed, in Dutch verse, his most admirable treatise "On the Truth of the Christian Religion."

When Grotius had been confined eighteen months, his wife effected his escape by a chest; which, under pretence of carrying books, conveyed him to Gorcum, to the house of David Dazelaers, a friend of Grotius, where the chest was opened, and its captive, dressed like a mason, stepped into a boat, which carried him to Valvic, in Brabant, where he

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arrived on the 22d of March, in the year 1621. His wife, during his absence, gave out that he was confined to his bed; but as soon as she heard that he was safe, she told the guards "that the bird had flown." They then confined her more closely; but, presenting a petition to the commandant, she was discharged. In 1621, Grotius arrived at Paris, where he wrote his 66 Apology," which he finished in 1622; and it was soon after translated into Latin. After having lived a year in that vicious metropolis, he retired to a seat of President de Memes, at Balagni, where he began his greatest work, which would alone be sufficient to immortalize his name, entitled a "Treatise of the Rights of War and Peace." In the year 1630 he finished the "Phœnissæ of Euripides," and dedicated it to the President de Memes. In May, 1634, Grotius arrived at Frankfort, and was received with great politeness by the high chancellor; who, after taking him to Mentz, proclaimed him counsellor to the queen of Sweden, and her ambassador at the court of France. Hugo Grotius died on the 28th of August, 1645. On his death two medals were struck, one containing this just inscription, that he was the Phoenix of his country, the oracle of Delft, the great genius, the light which enlighteneth the earth." Grotius was master of all that is worth knowing in sacred and profane literature. There was no art or science with which he was not acquainted. He possessed a clear head, an excellent judgment, universal learning, immense reading, and a sincere and unwavering love of truth and Christianity. In his annotations on the Old and New Testament he discovers his amazing store of classical erudition, and the acuteness of his critical tact. He adheres rigidly to the literal sense throughout, objects to the double sense of prophecy, is rather hostile to the application of the Old Testament revelation to the Messiah, and attaches too little importance to the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, many of which, indeed, he appears grossly to have misapprehended. It has been remarked by Professor Gaussen, that while no commentators deserve to be preferred to Erasmus and Grotius, whoever makes use of their writings should be aware that "he is treading on fire overspread with faithless ashes." His Socinian perversions were ably exposed by Dr. Owen, in his "Vindicia Evangelicæ,"

and by Calovius, in his "Biblia Illus trata." Vide M. de Burigny's Life of Grotius; Jones's Christ. Biog.

GROWTH IN GRACE. See GRACE. GUARDIAN ANGEL. "Some," says Dr. Doddridge, "have thought, that not only every region but every man has some particular angel assigned him as a guardian, whose business it is generally to watch over that country or person: for this opinion they urge Matt. xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15. But the argument from both these places is evidently precarious; and it seems difficult to reconcile the supposition of such a continued attendance with what is said of the stated residence of these angels in heaven, and with Heb. i. 14, where all the angels are represented as ministering to the heirs of salvation: though, as there is great reason to believe the number of heavenly spirits is vastly superior to that of men upon earth, it is not improbable that they may, as it were, relieve each other, and in their turns perform these condescending services to those whom the Lord of Angels has been pleased to redeem with his own blood; but we must confess that our knowledge of the laws and orders of those celestial beings is very limited, and consequently that it is the part of humility to avoid dogmatical determinations on such heads as these." See ANGEL; and Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 212.

GUEBRES, OR GAURS (i. e. infidels), the name given to the fire-worshippers in Persia, who in India are called Parsees. They designate themselves Behendie, or followers of the true faith, and live chiefly in the deserts of Caramania, towards the Persian Gulf, and in the province of Yezd Keram, but are also found at Bombay, at Bachu on the western shore of the Caspian, and at Astrachan. They are but little known, but appear to be mild in their manners, temperate in their habits, and laborious cultivators of the ground. They are not prohibited the use of wine, and eat all kinds of meat. Divorce and polygamy are forbidden; only if a wife remain barren during the first nine years of marriage, the husband may take a second wife. They worship one Supreme Being, whom they call Yezd, or the Eternal Spirit. The sun, moon, and planets, they believe to be peopled with intelligent beings; they acknowledge light as the primitive cause of good, and regard darkness as that of evil; on which ac

count they worship fire, though they themselves maintain that they do not render the worship to the material element itself, but to the pure and incomprehensible God, of whom it is the brightest and most appropriate image. With a view to the performance of this service, they keep a fire uninterruptedly burning on their holy places, the original of which, they maintain, was kindled by Zoroaster 4000 years ago. Their religious book is the Zenda-vesta, which see. One of the

HABADIM, a subdivision of the Jewish sect of Chasidim, founded by Rabbi Solomon, in the government of Mohilef. The name (Habadim) by which they are distinguished, is composed of the initial letters of the three Hebrew words, no7, nra, nnan, “ wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge." They may not improperly be termed the "Jewish Quiet ists," as their distinguishing peculiarity consists in the rejection of external forms, and the complete abandonment of the mind to abstraction and contemplation. Instead of the baptisms customary among the Jews, they go through the signs without the use of the element, and consider it their duty to disengage themselves as much as possible from matter, because of its tendency to clog the mind in its ascent to the Supreme Source of Intelligence. In prayer they make no use of words, but simply place themselves in the attitude of supplication, and exercise themselves in mental ejaculations.

HABIT, a power and ability of doing any thing, acquired by frequent repetition of the same action. It is distinguished from custom. Custom respects the action; habit the actor. By custom we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by habit the effect that custom has on the mind or body. "Man," as one observes, "is a bundle of habits. There are habits of industry, attention, vigilance, advertency; of a prompt obedience to the judgment occurring, or of yielding to the first impulse of passion; of apprehending, methodizing, reasoning; of vanity, melancholy, fretfulness, suspicion, covetousness, &c. In a word, there is not a quality or function, either of body or mind, which does not feel the influence of this great law of animated

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peculiarities of the Guebres is, that they do not bury their dead, but expose the bodies upon the towers of their temples, where they are devoured by birds. They observe which part the birds eat first, from which they judge of the fate of the deceased.

GUILT, the state of a person justly charged with a crime; a consciousness of having done amiss; liability to punishment.

nature." To cure evil habits, we should be as early as we can in our application, principiis obsta; to cross and mortify the inclination by a frequent and obstinate practice of the contrary virtue. To form good habits, we should get our minds well stored with knowledge; associate with the wisest and best men; reflect much on the pleasure good habits are productive of; and, above all, supplicate the Divine Being for direction and assistance. Kaimes's El. of Crit. ch. xiv. vol. 1; Grove's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 143; Paley's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 46; Jortin on Bad Habits, ser. 1. vol. iii.; Reid on the Active Powers, p. 117; Cogan on the Passions, p. 235.

HADES, ‘Aôns, from å privative and iôew to see, signifying the invisible state, or the place of the departed, without reference either to their misery or bliss. The corresponding term in Hebrew is x Sheol, which is derived from the root by to demand, inquire; and either signifies the place with respect to which it may be asked, “Man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?" Job xiv. 10. Or the insatiable receptacle which crieth Give, give, and never saith, It is enough. Prov. xxx. 15, 16. Both words are employed to express the state of the dead, in its most comprehensive point of view; comprising the grave as the invisible residence of the body, and the world of spirits as the invisible abode of the soul. At other times they are used, either of the one or the other, taken separately. They are often very improperly rendered hell in our common version; the instances being comparatively few in which the words have the signification of the place of punishment. In other passages the term grave is too limited a rendering. The reader must

judge from the context, and all the circumstances of the case, in which acceptation the words are to be taken.

That the Hebrews ordinarily understood something beyond the grave by the term i Sheol, is evident from the circumstance, that the common name for that receptacle of the human body is P Keber; so that when in any given instance they did apply it in this sense, it was only designating a part for the whole. It was the state in which the aged patriarch expected to meet his deceased son, Gen. xxxvii. 35; into which the fathers had entered, and whither their posterity were removed at death to join their society. Gen. xxv. 8. Xxxv. 29. xlix. 29. Deut. xxxii. 50. In all these passages, the being " gathered to one's people," is spoken of as something distinct from mere burial; and, indeed, in the cases of Abraham and Moses, it is obvious, that, in such a sense, no phrase can be more incongruous, since the former had no people in the cave of Machpelah, Sarah being the only individual who as yet had been buried in it; and of the grave of the latter, the children of Israel were profoundly ignorant. To his people he certainly was not gathered, if by the phrase be meant that his body was deposited in his family grave. It has justly been observed that aons, and the corresponding Hebrew word Sheol are always singular in meaning as well as in form. The word for grave is often plural. The former never admit the possessive pronouns, being the receptacle of all the dead, and therefore incapable of appropriation to individuals; the latter frequently does. Where the disposal of the body or corpse is spoken of, Tapos, or some equivalent term, is the name of its repository. When mention is made of the spirit after death, its abode is άδης.

With respect to the situation of Hades, it was conceived of by the Hebrews as well as the Pagans, as in the lower or interior parts of the earth, and answering in depth to the visible heavens in height. Hence the phrases,-deep_as hades; to descend to hades, &c. For further information on this subject, see Campbell's Dissert. No. vi.

HADGEE, the title of a Mohammedan who performs a pilgrimage to Mecca; a religious act which every or thodox Mussulman is directed to do once in his life. It is also the name of the

celebration which takes place on the arrival of the caravan of pilgrims at Mecca.

HAGIOGRAPHA (Gr. åyos, holy, and ypaon, a writing) the name given to the third division of the Jewish scriptures, which comprises the book of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, Esther, and the Chronicles. In Hebrew this division is called, Kethubim, the "writings." These books appear to have received the name of“ Sacred Writings," to intimate that, though they were not written by Moses, nor by any of the prophets, strictly so called, they were nevertheless to be received as of the same divine authority, having been written or added to the canon, under the influence of that holy spirit by whose inspiration the other books were composed.

HÆRETICO COMBURENDO, a writ which anciently lay against a he retic, who, having once been convicted of heresy by his bishop, and having abjured it, afterwards falling into it again, or into some other, is thereupon committed to the secular power. This writ is thought by some to be as ancient as the common law itself; however, the conviction of heresy by the common law was not in any petty ecelesiastical court, but before the archbishop himself, in a provincial synod, and the delinquent was delivered up to the king, to do with him as he pleased; so that the crown had a control over the spiritual power; but by 2 Henry IV. cap. 15, the diocesan alone, without the intervention of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets; and unless the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapsed, the sheriff was bound ex officio, if required by the bishop, to commit the unhappy victim to the flames, without waiting for the consent of the crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually executed on two Anabaptists, in the seventh of Elizabeth, and on two Arians in the ninth of James I. Sir Edward Coke was of opinion that this writ did not lie in his time; but it is now formally taken away by statute 29 Car. II. cap. 9. But this statute does not extend to take away or abridge the jurisdiction of Protestant archbishops, or bishops, or any other judges of any ecclesiastical courts, in cases of atheism, blasphemy, heresy, or schism, but they may prove and

punish the same, according to his Majesty's ecclesiastical laws, by excommunication, deprivation, degradation, and other ecclesiastical censures, not extending to death, in such sort, and no other, as they might have done before the making of this act.

HALLELUJAH, Hebrew "Praise ye the Lord." In Greek 'AX Novia. The ancient writers of the Christian Church make frequent mention of singing the Allelujah, by which they sometimes mean the repetition of that single word, which they did, in imitation of the heavenly host, singing and repeating Allelujah, Rev. xix. Sometimes they mean one of those Psalms which are called Alleluatic Psalms, because they had the word Allelujah prefixed to them; such as the cxlv. and those that follow, to the end. The singing Allelujah was a sort of invitatory, or call to each other, to praise the Lord. Anciently there was no dispute about the lawfulness of using the hymn itself, but there was some difference about the times of using it. St. Austin tells us, that in some churches it was sung only on Easter-day, and the fifty days of Pentecost. But in other churches it was used at other times also. Sozomen assures us that, in the Roman Church, it was sung only on Easter-day; and that from thence it was the common form of an oath among the Romans, as they hoped to live to sing Allelujah on that day. But even in those churches, where it was most in use, there were some exceptions in point of time and season; for, according to St. Austin, it was never used in the time of Lent. The fourth Council of Toledo forbids the singing it, not only during Lent, but on other days of fasting. In the same council the Allelujah is mentioned under the name of Laudes, and appointed to be sung after the reading of the Gospel. It was also sung at funerals, as St. Jerom acquaints us in his epitaph of Fabiola, where he speaks of the whole multitude singing psalms together, and making the golden roof of the church shake with echoing forth the Allelujah. In the second Council of Tours, it is appointed to be sung immediately after the Psalms, both at Matins and Vespers. St. Jerom says, it was used even in private devotion, and that the ploughman at his labour sung Allelujahs. It was likewise the signal, or call, among the Monks, to their ecclesiastical assemblies. The ancient church always preserved the

Hebrew word; and so did the Church of England in her first Liturgy, though now they say, "Praise ye the Lord," with a response of the people, "The Lord's name be praised."

The word, as occurring in the Psalms, has been retained in many versions, and is often employed in hymns, probably on account of its full and fine sound, which, together with its simple and solemn meaning, so proper for public religious services, has rendered it a favourite of musical composers. Its vowels are very favourable for a singer.

The Jews call the Psalms cxiii.-cxvii. the Great Hallel, because they celebrate the peculiar mercies of God towards the Jews, and they are sung at the feast of the Passover, and that of Tabernacles.

HALYBURTON, THOMAS, Professor of Divinity in the University of St. Andrew's, was born at Duplin, in the parish of Aberdalgy, near Perth, December the 25th, 1674. His father, formerly minister of that parish, was ejected, with about three hundred others, for non-conformity. Both his parents were eminently pious. In 1682 his father died, in the fifty-fifth year of his age; and the care of the son's morals and education devolved on his excellent mother. Never was the importance of the union of piety and literature in the maternal character more fully developed than in this instance. But for this the world might never have heard, nor the church have felt, the benefit of the talents and Christian virtues of an Halyburton. This excellent woman was the mother of eleven children, out of which number she followed nine to the grave at a very early age. In addition to her other trials, she was driven, by the rage of persecution, to seek an asylum in Holland, for herself and children, two of which only were now left to her-the subject of the present sketch, and her eldest daughter, who was married. While on his voyage to Holland, he speaks, in his Memoirs, of various convictions arising in his mind, in times of real or apprehended danger, but acknowledges, at the same time, that he knew nothing of acceptance and communion with God and attributes his concern of mind to mixture of natural fear, and a selfi desire of preservation from supposed da ger. He made resolutions in the storm, which subsided with the winds; and corruption, that had been dammed in for a little, having forced down the temporary

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