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time of our Saviour's abode on earth, seem to have had but little notion of those doctrines, which those who deny the salvability of the heathens are most apt to imagine, Rom. ii. 10-22; Acts x. 34, 35; Matt. viii. 11, 12. Mr. Grove, Dr. Watts, Saurin, and Mr. Newton, favour the same opinion; the latter of whom thus observes :-" If we suppose a heathen brought to a sense of his misery-to a conviction that he cannot be happy without the favour of the great Lord of the world--to a feeling of guilt, and desire of mercy; and that, though he has no explicit knowledge of a Saviour, he directs the cry of his heart to the unknown Supreme, to have mercy upon him, who will prove that such views and desires can arise in the heart of a sinner, without the energy of that Spirit which Jesus is exalted to bestow? Who will take upon him to say, that his blood has not sufficient efficacy to redeem to God a sinner who is thus disposed, though he have never heard of his name? Or who has a warrant to affirm, that the supposition I have made is in the nature of things impossible to be realized ?" Newton's Messiah; Dr. Watts's Strength and Weakness of Human Reason, p. 106; Saurin's Sermons, vol. ii. p. 314; Grove's Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 128; Turret Loc., vol. i. quæst. 4, § 1, 2, 17; Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 240, vol. ii. 8vo. edit.; Bellamy's Religion Delineated, p. 105; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, qu. 60; Gale's Court of the Gentiles; Considerations on the Religious Worship of the Heathen; Rev. W. Jones's Works, vol. xii.

HEAVEN is considered as a place in some remote part of infinite space, in which the omnipresent Deity is said to afford a nearer and more immediate view of himself and a more sensible manifestation of his glory than in the other parts of the universe.

That there is a state of future happiness, both reason and Scripture indicate; a general notion of happiness after death has obtained among the wiser sort of heathens, who have only had the light of nature to guide them. If we examine the human mind, it is also evident that there is a natural desire after happiness in all men; and, which is equally evident, is not attained in this life. It is no less observable, that in the present state there is an unequal distribution of things, which makes the providences of

God very intricate, and which cannot be solved without supposing a future state. Revelation, however, puts it beyond all doubt. The Divine Being hath promised it, 1 John ii. 25; 1 John v. 11; James i. 12; hath given us some intimation of its glory, 1 Pet. iii. 4, 22; Rev. iii. 4; declares Christ hath taken possession of it for us, John xiv. 2, 3; and informs us of some already there, both as to their bodies and souls, Gen. v. 24; 2 Kings ii.

Heaven is to be considered as a place as well as a state; it is expressly so termed in Scripture, John xiv. 2, 3; and the existence of the body of Christ, and those of Enoch and Elijah, is a further proof of it. For if it be not a place, where can these bodies be? and where will the bodies of the saints exist after the resurrection? Where this place is, however, cannot be determined. Some have thought it to be beyond the starry firmament; and some of the ancients imagined that their dwelling would be in the sun. Others suppose the air to be the seat of the blessed. Others think that the saints will dwell upon earth when it shall be restored to its paradisaical state; but these suppositions are more curious than edifying, and it becomes us to be silent where divine revelation is so.

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Heaven, however, we are assured, is a place of inexpressible felicity. The names given to it are proofs of this: it is called paradise," Luke xxiii. 43; "light," Rev. xxi. 23; "a building and mansion of God," 2 Cor. v. 1; John xiv. 2; " a city," Heb. xi. 10, 16; "a better country," Heb. xi. 16; an inheritance,' Acts xx. 32; 66 a kingdom," Matt. xxv. 34; "a crown," 2 Tim. iv. 8; glory," Ps. lxxxiv. 11; 2 Cor. iv. 17; peace, rest, and joy of the Lord," Isa. lvii. 2; Heb. iv. 9; Matt. xxv. 21, 23. The felicity of heaven will consist in freedom from all evil, both of soul and body, Rev. vii. 17; in the enjoyment of God as the chief good; in the company of angels and saints; in perfect holiness, and extensive knowledge.

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It has been disputed whether there are degrees of glory in heaven. The arguments against degrees are, that all the people of God are loved by him with the same love, all chosen together in Christ, equally interested in the same covenant of grace, equally redeemed with the same price, and all predestinated to the same adoption of children;

to suppose the contrary, it is said, is to eclipse the glory of divine grace, and carries with it the legal idea of being rewarded for our works. On the other side it is observed, that if the above reasoning would prove anything, it would prove too much, viz. that we should all be upon an equality in the present world as well as that which is to come; for we are now as much the objects of the same love, purchased by the same blood, &c., as we shall be hereafter. That rewards contain nothing inconsistent with the doctrine of grace, because those very works which it pleaseth God to honour are the effects of his own operation. That all rewards to a guilty creature have respect to the mediation of Christ. That God's graciously connecting bless ings with the obedience of his people, serves to show not only his love to Christ and to them, but his regard to righteousness. That the Scriptures expressly declare for degrees. Dan. xii. 3; Matt. x. 41, 42; Matt. xix. 28, 29; Luke xix. 16, 19; Rom. ii. 6; 1 Cor. iii. 8; 1 Cor. xv. 41, 42; 2 Cor. v. 10; Gal. vi. 9.

Another question has sometimes been proposed, viz. Whether the saints shall know each other in heaven ?

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"The arguments," says Dr. Ridgley, "which are generally brought in defence of it, are taken from those instances recorded in Scripture, in which persons, who have never seen one another before, have immediately known each other in this world, by a special, immediate divine reve lation given to them, in like manner that Adam knew that Eve was taken out of him; and therefore says, This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man.' Gen. ii. 23. He was 'cast into a deep sleep, when God took out one of his ribs, and so formed the woman,' as we read in the foregoing words; yet the knowledge hereof was communicated to him by God. Moreover, we read that Peter, James, and John knew Moses and Elias, Matt. xvii., as appears from Peter's making a particular mention of them: "Let us make three tabernacles; one for thee, one for Moses, and one for Elias,' 4th ver., though he had never seen them before. Again, our Saviour, in the parable, represents the rich man' as seeing Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom, Luke xvi. 23, and speaks of him as addressing his discourse to him. From such like arguments, some conclude that

it may be inferred that the saints shall know one another in heaven, when joined together in the same assembly.

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Moreover, some think that this may be proved from the apostle's words, in 1 Thess. ii. 19, 20. What is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing? Are not even ye in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming? for ye are our glory and joy:' which seems to argue that he apprehended their happiness in heaven should contribute, or be an addition to his, as he was made an instrument to bring them thither; even so, by a parity of reason, every one who has been instrumental in the conversion and building up others in their holy faith, as the apostle Paul was with respect to them, these shall tend to enhance their praise, and give them occasion to glorify God on their behalf. Therefore it follows that they shall know one another; and consequently they who have walked together in the ways of God, and have been useful to one another as relations and intimate friends, in what respects more especially their spiritual concerns, shall bless God for the mutual advantages which they have received, and consequently shall know one another. Again, some prove this from that expression of our Saviour, in Luke xvi. 9, 'Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness, that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations; especially if by these everlasting habitations be meant heaven, as many suppose it is; and then the meaning is, that they whom you have relieved, and shown kindness to in this world, shall express a particular joy upon your being admitted into heaven; and consequently they shall know you, and bless God for your having been so useful and beneficial to them.

"To this it is objected, that if the saints shall know one another in heaven, they shall know that several of those who were their intimate friends here on earth, whom they loved with very great affection, are not there; and this will have a tendency to give them some uneasiness, and a diminution of their joy and happi

ness.

"To this it may be replied, that if it be allowed that the saints shall know that some whom they loved on earth are not in heaven, this will give them no uneasiness: since that affection which took its rise principally from the relation which we stood in to persons on earth,

or the intimacy that we have contracted with them, will cease in another world, or rather run in another channel, and be excited by superior motives: namely, their relation to Christ; that perfect holiness which they are adorned with; their being joined in the same blessed society, and engaged in the same employment: together with their former usefulness one to another in promoting their spiritual welfare, as made subservient to the happiness they enjoy there. And as for others, who are excluded from their society, they will think themselves obliged, out of a due regard to the justice and holiness of God, to acquiesce in his righteous judgments. Thus, the inhabitants of heaven are represented as adoring the divine perfections, when the vials of God's wrath were poured out upon his enemies, and saying, Thou art righteous, O Lord, because thou hast judged thus: true and righteous are thy judgments.' Rom. xvi. 5, 7.

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"Another question has been sometimes asked, víz. Whether there shall be a diversity of languages in heaven, as there is on earth? This we cannot pretend to determine. Some think that there shall; and that, as persons of all nations and tongues shall make up that blessed society, so they shall praise God in the same language which they before used when on earth; and that this worship may be performed with the greatest harmony, and to mutual edification, all the saints shall, by the immediate power and providence of God, be able to understand and make use of every one of those different languages, as well as their own. This they found on the apostle's words, in which he says, That at the name of Jesus every knee shall bow, and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is the Lord;' which they suppose has a respect to the heavenly state, because it is said to be done both by those that are in heaven and by those that are on earth. Phil. ii. 10, 11. But though the apostle speaks by a metonymy of different tongues, that is, persons who speak different languages being subject to Christ, he probably means thereby persons of different nations, whether they shall praise him in their own language in heaven, or no. Therefore some conjecture that the diversity of languages shall then cease, inasmuch as it took its first rise from God's judicial hand, when he confounded the speech of those who presumptuously attempted to build the

city and tower of Babel; and this has been ever since attended with many inconveniences. And, indeed, the apostle seems expressly to intimate as much, when he says, speaking concerning the heavenly state, that 'tongues shall cease,' 1 Cor. xiii. 8, that is, the present variety of languages. Moreover, since the gift of tongues was bestowed on the apostles for the gathering and building up the church in the first ages thereof, which end, when it was answered, this extraordinary dispensation ceased; in like manner it is probable that hereafter the diversity of languages shall cease."

"I am sensible," says Dr. Ridgley, "there are some who object to this, that the saints' understanding all languages will be an addition to their honour, glory, and happiness. But to this it may be answered, that though it is, indeed, an accomplishment, in this world, for a person to understand several languages, that arises from the subserviency thereof to those valuable ends that are answered thereby; but this would be entirely removed, if the diversity of languages be taken away in heaven, as some suppose it will."

"There are some who, it may be, give too much scope to a vain curiosity, when they pretend to inquire what this language shall be, or determine, as the Jews do, and with them some of the fathers, that it shall be Hebrew, since their arguments for it are not sufficiently conclusive, which are principally these, viz. That this was the language with which God inspired man at first in paradise, and that which the saints and patriarchs spake, and the church generally made use of in all ages till our Saviour's time; and that it was this language which he himself spake while here on earth; and, since his ascension into heaven, he spake to Paul' in the Hebrew tongue.' Acts xxvi. 14. And when the inhabitants of heaven are described in the Revelations as praising God, there is one word used by which their praise is expressed, namely, Hallelujah, which is Hebrew; the meaning whereof is, Praise ye the Lord. But all these arguments are not sufficiently convincing, and therefore we must reckon it no more than a conjecture."

However undecided we may be as to this and some other circumstances, this we may be assured of, that the happiness of heaven will be eternal. Whether it will be progressive or not, and that the

saints shall always be increasing in their knowledge, joy, &c., is not so clear. Some suppose that this indicates an imperfection in the felicity of the saints for any addition to be made; but others think it quite analogous to the dealings of God with us here; and that, from the nature of the mind itself, it may be concluded. But however this be, it is certain that our happiness will be complete. 1 Pet. v. 10; 1 Pet. v. 4; Heb. xi. 10. Watts's Death and Heaven; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 495; Saurin's Serm., vol. iii. p. 321; Toplady's Works, vol. iii. p. 471; Bates's Works; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, question 90.

HEBREWS. See Jews.

HEBREW BIBLE. See BIBLE. HEBREW LANGUAGE, one of the branches of an extensive linguistical family, which, besides Palestine, originally comprehended Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and extending even to Carthage and other places along the Mediterranean Sea. It is confessedly one of the oldest of the Oriental or Semitic dialects, and is deserving of particular regard, not only as containing the most ancient written documents in existence, some of which are upwards of 3280 years old, but as being the depository of the ancient divine revelations to mankind. Proofs that the Hebrew was the primitive language, have been drawn from the names of individuals, nations, and places; from the names of the heathen gods; from the traces of it in all languages; and from its great purity and simplicity. Its principal characteristics, which apply, however, more or less to the kindred Semitic dialects, are stated by Gesenius to be the following. 1. It is fond of gutturals, which appear to have been pronounced with considerable force, but which our organs cannot enunciate. 2. The roots, from which other words are derived, generally consist of two syllables, and are more frequently verbs than nouns. 3. The verb has only two temporal forms, the past and the future. 4. The oblique cases of the pronouns are always affixed to the verb, the substantive, or the particle, with which they stand connected. 5. The genders are only two, masculine and feminine. 6. The only way of distinguishing the cases is by prepositions, only the genitive is formed by a noun being placed in construction with another noun, by which it is governed. 7. The compara

tive and superlative have distinct or separate forms. 8. The language exhibits few compounds, except in proper names. 9. The syntax is extremely simple, and the diction is in the highest degree unperiodical.

The Hebrew language is found in its greatest purity in the writings of Moses. It was in a very flourishing state in the time of David and Solomon; but towards the reign of Hezekiah it began to decline, was subjected to an intermixture of foreign words, principally Aramæan, and gradually deteriorated till the captivity, during which it became in a great measure forgotten, the Jews adopting the eastern Aramæan in Babylon; and on their return to their native land they spoke a mixed dialect, composed principally of the dialects just mentioned, and otherwise made up of Syriacisms, or western Aramæan materials. Some knowledge, however, of the ancient language continued to exist among the learned of the nation: but they no longer spoke it in purity, and mixed it up with a number of Persic, Greek, and Latin words, and thus formed the Talmudic dialect, which exhibits the language as preserved in the Talmud. The Rabbinical Hebrew, which is that of a still later age, contains a further mixture from the different languages with which the Rabbins were conversant.

In no

HEBREW PHILOLOGY. department of sacred learning have the wild vagaries of a playful imagination, or the stubborn hardihood of preconceived opinions, and favourite theological theories, produced greater confusion, and thrown more formidable bugbears in the way of the youthful student, than that of Hebrew philology. The very facts, that some of the documents comprised in the sacred volume are upwards of 3000 years old, and were penned several centuries before the Greeks became acquainted with the use of letters; and, that a period of not fewer than twelve centuries intervened between the composition of the earliest and the most recent of its records, together with the wide difference which is known to exist between the forms and structure of the oriental languages and those of western Europe, present considerations which are of themselves sufficiently intimidating, and calculated to make a beginner despair of ever acquiring a satisfactory knowledge of the language in which it is written: but when, in addition to these

facts, we reflect on the various conflicting systems.of Hebrew grammar and lexicography, the high-pretending, but contradictory hypotheses of divines eminent for their erudition and piety, and the circumstance that few years elapse without some production of novel and original claims being obtruded on the attention of the theological world in reference to this subject, it cannot be matter of surprise, that numbers, even of those whose sacred engagements would naturally lead them to cultivate the study of Hebrew, are induced to abandon it as altogether unprofitable and vain.

. Such as have never particularly directed their attention to the subject, can scarcely form any idea of the widelydiversified views that have been entertained respecting the only proper and legitimate methods by which to determine the true meaning of the words constituting the ancient language of the Hebrews. We shall, therefore, here attempt a brief sketch of the different schools of Hebrew philology.

1. The Rabbinical. This school, which is properly indigenous among the Jews, derives its acquaintance with the Hebrew from the tradition of the synagogue; from the Chaldee Targums; from the Talmud; from the Arabic, which was the language of some of the most learned Rabbins; and from conjectural interpretation. In this school, at one of its earlier periods, Jerome acquired his knowledge of the language; and, on the revival of learning, our first Christian Hebraists in the west were also educated in it, having had none but Rabbins for their teachers. In consequence of this, the Jewish system of interpretation was introduced into the Christian church by Reuchlin, Sebastian Munster, Sanctes Pagninus, and the elder Buxtorf; and its principles still continue to exert a powerful and extensive influence through the medium of the grammatical and lexicographical works of the last-mentioned author, and the tinge which they gave to many parts of the biblical translations executed immediately after the Reformation.

2. The Forsterian school, founded about the middle of the sixteenth century, by John Forster, a scholar of Reuchlin's, and professor in Tubingen and Wittenberg. This author entirely rejected the authority of the Rabbins; and, not being aware of the use to be

made of the versions and cognate dialects, laid it down as an incontrovertible principle of Hebrew philology, that a perfect knowledge of the language is to be derived from the sacred text alone, by consulting the connexion, comparing the parallel passages, and transposing and changing the Hebrew letters, especially such as are similar in figure. His system was either wholly adopted and extended, or, in part, followed by Bohl, Gusset, Driessen, Stock, and others, whose lexicons all proceed on this selfinterpreting principle; but its insufficiency has been shown by J. D. Michaelis, in his "Investigation of the Means to be employed in order to attain to a Knowledge of the Dead Language of the Hebrews," and by Bauer, in his "Hermeneut. V. T."

3. The Avenarian school, which proceeds on the principle that the Hebrew, being the primitive language from which all others have been derived, may be explained by aid of the Greek, Latin, German, English, &c. Its founder, John Avenarius, professor at Wittenberg, has had but few followers; but among these we may reckon the eccentric Hermann van der Hardt, who attempted to derive the Hebrew from the Greek, which he regarded as the most ancient of all tongues.

4. The Hieroglyphic, or cabbalistic system, long in vogue among the Jews, but first introduced into Christendom by Caspar Neumann, professor at Breslau. It consists in attaching certain mystical and hieroglyphical powers to the different letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and determining the signification of the words according to the position occupied by each letter. This ridiculously absurd hypothesis was ably refuted by the learned Christ. Bened. Michaelis, in a Dissertation printed at Halle, 1709, in 4to., and has scarcely had any abettors: but recently it has been revived by a French academician, whose work on the subject exhibits a perfect anomaly in modern literature. Its title is, "La Langue Hébraïque Restituée, et le véritable sens des mots Hébreux rétabli et prouvé par leur analyse radicale. Par Fabre D'Olivet, à Paris, 1815." 4to. According to this author, & is the sign of power and stability; of paternity and virility; of organic or material development; of divisible or divided nature; a most mysterious sign, ex

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