lives, as Bernard admits, were exemplary. Their peculiarities were as follows:They held it to be unlawful to take oaths; they suffered their hair and beards to grow to an enormous length; they preferred celibacy to wedlock, calling themselves the chaste brethren and sisters; each man, however, had a spiritual sister, with whom he lived in a domestic relation. 3. The third sect was founded about 1260, by Gerhard Sagarelli. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of the kingdom of heaven and of purer times, had females in their retinue, with whom they were suspected of unlawful intimacy. This society never received the papal confirmation: on the contrary, it was abolished, A.D. 1286, by Honorius IV. But, though they were persecuted by the Inquisition, they continued in existence, perpetually wandering about; and when Sagarelli was burnt as a heretic in 1300, another leader appearedDolcino, a learned man of Milan, who encouraged the sect, now increased to fourteen hundred men, with his prophetic promises. To defend themselves against persecution, they were compelled, about the year 1304, to, station themselves in fortified places, whence they might resist attacks. In the plundering habits which they were forced to adopt, they wholly lost their original character, and after having devastated a large tract of country belonging to Milan, they were subdued in 1307 by the troops of Bishop Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burnt. Their survivors afterwards appeared in Lombardy, and in the south of France, as late as 1368. Their heresy consisted in their opposition to the corruptions of the clergy, and the unfounded pretensions of the Pope of Rome.

APOTACTITÆ, an ancient sect, who affected to follow the example of the apostles, and renounced all their effects and possessions. It does not appear that they held any errors at first; but afterwards they taught that the renouncing of all riches was not only a matter of counsel and advice, but of precept and necessity.

APPELLANTS, a term specially applied to those of the French clergy, and others, who appealed from the Pope's authority in the matter of the Bull Unigenitus, to a general council.

APPROBATION, a state or disposition of the mind, wherein we put a value upon, or become pleased with, some person or thing. Moralists are divided on the principle of approbation, or the motive which determines us to approve or disapprove. The Epicureans will have it to be only self-interest: according to them, that which determines any agent to approve his own action, is its apparent tendency to his private happiness; and even the approbation of another's action flows from no other cause but an opinion of its tendency to the happiness of the approver, either immediately or remotely. Others resolve approbation into a moral sense, or a principle of benevolence, by which we are determined to approve every kind affection either in ourselves or others, and all publicly useful actions which we imagine to flow from such affections, without any view therein to our own private happiness.

But may we not add, that a true Christian's approbation arises from his perception of the will of God? See OBLIGATION.

APPROPRIATION, the annexing a benefice to the proper and perpetual use of some religious house. It is a term also often used in the religious world, as referring to that act of the mind by which we apply the blessings of the Gospel to ourselves. This appropriation is real when we are enabled to believe in, feel, and obey the truth; but merely nominal and delusive when there are no fruits of righteousness and true holiness. See ASSURANCE.

AQUARIANS, those who consecrated water in the eucharist instead of wine, partly for fear the smell of wine should discover them to the heathens, and partly because they deemed it unlawful to drink it. Another branch of them approved of wine in the sacrament, when received at the evening: they likewise mixed water with the wine.

AQUILA. See BIBLE, ancient versions (Greek).

AQUINAS, THOMAS, commonly called the Angelic Doctor, a celebrated scholastic divine, whose authority has always stood very high with the Roman Catholics. He was descended from the kings of Sicily and Arragon, and born at the castle of Aquino, in Italy, about the year 1224; received the rudiments of his education at an early age, from the monks of Mount Cassino; and, not

withstanding the obstacles thrown in his way by his parents, and the measures to which they had recourse to prevent his associating with the Dominicans, he made rapid progress, under their direction, in the theology of the day. Having prosecuted his studies at Naples, Rome, and Cologne, he proceeded to Paris, where he read lectures, with great applause, on the book of Sentences, and was created doctor in divinity in 1255. About 1263, he returned to Italy, and was appointed definitor of his order for the province of Rome; and after teaching his divinity at most of the Italian universities, finally settled at Naples, where he exclusively addicted himself to study, the delivery of lectures, and devotional exercises. So free was he from the influence of worldly honours and wealth, that he refused to accept the Neapolitan archbishopric, when offered him by Clement IV. He was a man of great metaphysical acumen, subtilty in disputation, zeal for the doctrines and corruptions of the Church, and confessedly unrivalled among the divines of that age. His works, amounting to seventeen folio volumes, were first published at Venice in 1490, and have been frequently reprinted. They principally consist of Commentaries on Scripture, the Works of Aristotle, and the Books of Sentences; but his most celebrated work is the Summa Theologiæ," which was almost universally received, placed on an equality with Lombard's celebrated writings, and admitted as the standard of truth, and the model according to which it is to be studied and propounded: they gave rise to the sect of the THOMISTS, which see. He died in 1274, and was canonized by John XXII., in 1323, Besides the title of angelic doctor, he received those of the angel of the schools, the cagle of divines, and the fifth doctor of the church.

ARABIC LANGUAGE, one of the principal of the dialects commonly called Oriental, or Semitic, and the most productive and important extraneous source from which to elucidate and corroborate the philology of the Hebrew language, with which it is closely allied by the tie of cognate relationship. It is one of the richest and most cultivated languages in the world, and is rendered specially remarkable by the extent of territory in which it is spoken, and the vast and valuable literary treasures in which it abounds. Our acquaintance with it

begins at the time of the commencement of its literature, a little before the time of Mohammed, by whom the northern dialect, spoken about Mecca, was elevated to be the medium of written as well as of colloquial communication. The Koran, which is composed in this dialect, is regarded by the Musselmans as inimitably sublime. The language abounds in works of poetry, history, geography, mathematics, philosophy, and natural science. We also possess in it several Jewish and Christian versions of the sacred Scriptures; and several of the most eminent of the rabbinical commentators were well acquainted with it as their vernacular tongue, and availed themselves of its aid in their interpretations of the Hebrew text. The best grammars are those of Rosenmüller and De Sacy, and the best lexicon is that of Golius, in folio, a new and greatly improved edition of which, in quarto, has just been published by Freytag.

ARABICI, a sect that sprang up in the former half of the third century in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was that the human soul dies, decays, and rises again at the same time with the body. Origen refuted their error, and prevailed on them to abandon it in the year 426. It originated in an opinion then held by many, that the soul is material.

ARAMAAN, ARAMAIC, properly whatever belongs to the people or language of Aram; and as this term comprehends not only Syria, but also Mesopotamia, and other adjacent eastern regions, the adjective is used in works of biblical criticism, to denote two cognate Semitic dialects the Western Aramaan, or Syriac; and the Eastern Aramcan, or Chaldee. The first intimation that we have of the existence of any such dialect is in Gen. xxxi. 47. It was the Eastern Aramæan which the Jews learned during the exile in Babylon, which they brought with them on their return to Palestine, and in which certain portions of the books of Ezra, and Daniel, and the Targums, are written. In the Western, or Syriac, we possess a most venerable, and truly valuable and important version of the Old and New Testament, besides other versions of a later date of the New Testament, or of single portions of the sacred volume.

ARCHANGEL, one of those composing the higher order of celestial spirits. It is used indefinitely, 1 Thess. iv. 6; and with the definite article of

Michael, Jude 9, who is, no doubt, the same that is spoken of, Dan. xii. 1. The term implies superiority of rank and authority over other angels, and quite accords with the representations which are made in various passages of the New Testament, respecting the different orders and subordination of the angelic hosts. The opinion of Bishop Horsley and some others,-that it is exclusively characteristic of Christ, as the champion and defender of his people-seems more fanciful than founded in truth.

ARCHBISHOP, a metropolitan prelate, having several suffragan bishops under him.

The bishops, in the primitive Church, were all vested with the same office and authority, but, as the profession of Christianity increased, the episcopal power was enlarged. As before there was at least one bishop placed in every city, so now, in every metropolis, as the Romans called it, or mother city, of every province, wherein were courts of civil judicature, there was a metropolitan, or Archbishop, who had ecclesiastical jurisdiction over all the bishops of that province. His jurisdiction consisted in ordaining or ratifying the elections and ordinations of all other bishops; and once a year he was to summon them all to a synod, in which he presided, to inquire into their conduct, to censure with suspension, or deprivation, and to hear and determine causes between contending bishops.

Dr. Bingham is of opinion, that archbishop was originally but another name for patriarch, though in process of time their jurisdiction became distinct.

The first establishment of Archbishoprics in England (if we may credit Bede, one of the most ancient writers of the English nation) was in the time of Lucius, said to be the first Christian king of England; who, after the conversion of his subjects, erected three archbishoprics at London, York, and Llandaff, then called Caerleon. The dignity of archbishop continued in the see of London one hundred and eighty years, till, in the time of the Saxons, it was translated to Canterbury, where it has continued ever since. York remains a metropolitan see to this day.

Augustin, the monk, who was sent by Pope Gregory to convert the English nation, in the reign of Ethelbert, King of Kent, was the first Bishop of Canterbury; but Theodore, the sixth in suc

cession after him, was the first archbishop of that see. The Archbishop of Canterbury had anciently the primacy, not only over England, but Ireland also, and all the bishops of the latter were consecrated by him. He was styled by Pope Urban II. Alterius Orbis Papa: he had a perpetual legatine power annexed to his archbishopric: he had some marks of royalty, such as the power of coining money, &c. Since the Reformation, he is styled Primate and Metropolitan of all England. Archbishop Cranmer was the first who bore this title. As to precedency, there have been ancient contests about it, as also about the oath of canonical obedience, between the two archiepiscopal sees. Some antiquarians will have it, that the Archbishop of York was originally primate of the British Church; for London never was a Roman colony, or the seat of the Roman Emperors, as York was, where both Severus and Constantius Chlorus lived and died, and where Constantine the Great was born; and from hence they infer, that, where the Emperors resided was the most likely place to have pre-eminence above the rest. However it be, in the reign of Henry I., William Corbel, Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained from the Pope the character of legate, by which he secured to himself a superiority over the see of York, which he visited jure legationis. But, after his death, the contest still continued; for we find that, in the reign of Henry II., a synod being called at Westminster by the Pope's legate, the Archbishop of Canterbury, coming first, seated himself at the right hand of the legate; but York, coming afterwards, refused to take the seat on the left hand, and demanded Canterbury's place, which the latter refusing, York sat down in his lap. This occasioned the synod to break up in disorder, and, both parties appealing to the Pope, the contest was decided in favour of the see of Canterbury, which enjoys the precedency to this day.

The privileges of the Archbishop of Canterbury are, among others, to crown the Kings of England; to have prelates for his officers-as the Bishop of London his provincial dean; the Bishop of Winchester his chancellor; the Bishop of Lincoln his vice-chancellor; the Bishop of Salisbury his precentor; the Bishop of Worcester his chaplain, and the Bishop of Rochester his crosier-bearer;

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which last office, since the times of popery, has ceased. He is also the first peer of England next to the royal family. The Archbishop of Canterbury hath the supreme government of ecclesiastical matters next under the king. Upon the death of any suffragan bishop, the custody of his see devolves upon the archbishop he hath a power of censuring any bishop in his province: he hath an ancient right to preside in all provincial councils of his suffragans, which formerly were held once a year, but have been discontinued a long time; so that his power of examining things throughout his province is devolved to his courts, of which he holds several,-as the Court of Arches, Prerogative Court, Court of Peculiars, &c., and he has the probate of wills.

As to the Archbishop of York, he is now styled Primate and Metropolitan of England, and takes place of all peers, except the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord Chancellor. He had originally the primacy, not only over twelve English sees, but likewise over all the bishoprics of Scotland. But Scotland has disowned his prerogative many years since, and the archbishopric itself hath swallowed up several of the smaller and more inconsiderable bishoprics; so that the whole province is now reduced to four sees-Durham, Chester, Carlisle,

and Man.

Scotland, whilst episcopacy prevailed in that country, had two archbishops of St. Andrews and Glasgow-the former of whom was Primate of all Scotiand.

Wales likewise anciently boasted of an archbishop, whose see (as has been observed) was established at Caerleon, and was afterwards translated to St. David's. But the plague raging very much in that country, the archiepiscopal see was again removed to Doll, in Bretagne, where this dignity ended. Notwithstanding which, in after ages, the Britons, or Welsh, commenced an action on that account against the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were cast.

Ireland has four archbishops-of Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam-of whom the Archbishop of Armagh is Primate of all Ireland.

In the United States there is an archbishop of the Roman Catholic church, whose see is at Baltimore, and whose spiritual jurisdiction extends over all the states. There is as yet no archbishop of

the Protestant Episcopal church, though there are several bishops. In the year 1828 Pope Leo XII. appointed, after much delay, an archbishop in Columbia, whom Bolivar had proposed. Perhaps the two most important archbishops in history were those of Cologne and Mentz. They were sovereigns of a considerable country, electors of the German empire, and the two highest officers under the emperor. Till Napoleon dissolved the German empire, they played a conspicuous part in the history of the continent. In France there are now nine archbishops; in Spain eight; in Portugal two; in Hungary three; in Italy thirtyeight. See BISHOP, PATRIARCH, and PRIMATE.

ARCHDEACON, an ecclesiastical officer under the bishop. Though archdeacons, in these last ages of the church, have usually been of the order of presbyters, or priests, yet anciently they were no more than deacons, as the name imports. But how the archdeacon came by his honour, and after what manner he was invested, is a matter of some dispute among learned men. Salmasius, and some others, are of opinion, that originally he was no more than the senior deacon. Others think the dignity was always elective, and in the breast of the bishop; but Jerome plainly asserts that the office went not by seniority but by

election.

The office of archdeacon was always a place of great honour and reputation; for he was the bishop's constant attendant and assistant, by which means he commonly gained such an interest, as to get himself chosen, before the presbyters, to succeed the bishop. His business was, 1. To attend the bishop at the altar, and to administer the cup when the bishop celebrated the eucharist. He was to order all things relating to the inferior clergy, such as to appoint readers, acolythists, sub-deacons, &c. 2. He was to assist the bishop in managing the church revenues, assigning their several portions to the poor, orphans, widows, &c. Upon which account, Prudentius, describing the offices of St. Laurence, whom he makes to be archdeacon of Rome, among other things assigns him the keys of the church's treasure, and the care of dispensing the oblations of the people: and he introduces the heathen persecutor demanding of him those treasures; which he promising to do, in a short time brought before him the poor, the lame,

the blind, and the infirm, telling him, those were the riches which he had in his custody. 3. Another part of his office was to assist the bishop in preaching, and in ordaining the inferior clergy. 4. He was also invested with the power of censuring deacons, and the inferior clergy, but not presbyters. 5. As to his jurisdiction, it will admit of a dispute, whether it originally extended over the whole diocese, or was confined to the city or mother-church. In the middle ages of the church, there is no question but his power extended over the whole diocese. 6. Valesius observes, that the archdeacons were likewise called CorEpiscopi. This may seem at first only a corruption of the Chorepiscopus, because, in later ages, the power of the ancient Chorepiscopi dwindled into that of the archdeacons. But when it is considered that the deacons anciently were called the bishop's eyes, ears, mouth, or heart, it will appear very probable, that the archdeacon was called, by way of eminence, Cor-episcopi, i. e. the bishop's heart. There are sixty archdeacons in England, who visit every two years in three, when they inquire into the reparations and moveables belonging to churches; reform abuses; suspend; excommunicate; in some places prove wills; and induct all clerks into benefices within their respective jurisdictions.

ARCHIMANDRITE, in the Greek church, an abbot, or general abbot, who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents; because, in the ancient Greek church, the abbots were called mandra. In Sicily the abbots are thus called because their convents were originally of Greek institution, and conform to the rules of St. Basil. The generalabbots of the united Greeks in Poland, Galicia, Transylvania, Hungary, and Venice also bear this title.

ARCHONTICS, a sect about the year 160 or 203. Among many other extravagant notions, they held that the world was created by archangels; they also denied the resurrection of the body. ARCH-PRESBYTER, or ARCHPRIEST, a priest established in some dioceses with a superiority over the rest. He was anciently chosen out of the college of presbyters, at the pleasure of the bishop. The arch-presbyters were much of the same nature with our deans in cathedral churches.

ARGENTEUS, CODEX. See MSS. BIBLICAL.

ARIANS, followers of Arius, a presbyter of the church of Alexandria, about 315, who maintained that the Son of God was totally and essentially distinct from the Father; that he was the first and noblest of those beings whom God had created,-the instrument, by whose subordinate operation he formed the universe; and, therefore, inferior to the Father both in nature and dignity; also, that the Holy Ghost was not God, but created by the power of the Son. The Arians owned that the Son was the Word; but denied that Word to have been eternal. They held that Christ had nothing of man in him but the flesh, to which the 20yos, or Word, was joined,' which was the same as the soul in us. The Arians were first condemned and anathematised by a council at Alexandria, in 320, under Alexander, bishop of that city, who accused Arius of impiety, and caused him to be expelled from the communion of the church; and afterwards by 380 fathers in the general council of Nice, assembled by Constantine, in 325. His doctrine, however, was not extinguished; on the contrary, it became the reigning religion, especially in the east. Arius was recalled from banishment by Constantine in two or three years after the council of Nice, and the laws that had been enacted against him were repealed. Notwithstanding this, Athanasius, then bishop of Alexandria, refused to admit him and his followers to communion. This so enraged them, that, by their interest at court, they procured that prelate to be deposed and banished; but the church of Alexandria still refusing to admit Arius into their communion, the emperor sent for him to Constantinople; where, upon delivering in a fresh confession of his faith in terms less offensive, the emperor commanded him to be received into their communion; but that very evening, it is said, Arius died as his friends were conducting him in triumph to the great church of Constantinople. The Arian party, however, found a protector in Constantius, who succeeded his father in the east. They underwent various revolutions and persecutions under succeeding emperors; till, at length, Theodosius the Great exerted every effort to suppress them. Their doctrine was carried, in the fifth century, into Africa, under the Vandals; and into Asia, under the Goths. Italy, Gaul, and Spain, were also deeply infected with it; and towards