who is sometimes known in history as Shi-tsu, and were sent back by him as embassadors to the Pope. When they returned to the East, Nicolo took with him his son Marco, who was then about fifteen years old. The explorations of Marco Polo may be considered as beginning when, after reaching Acre and passing northward along the coast of Syria, he, with his father and uncle, entered Asia Minor through the kingdom of Armenia.

The way of the three travellers lay through Lesser Armenia, now Asiatic Asiatic Turkey and Turcomania, into Greater Armenia. In Polo's time, Armenia was an unhealthy country, with correspondingly spiritless inhabitants. Many Genoese and Venetian merchants traded at Layas, its chief seaport, through which all travellers and merchants with their goods passed to and from the interior.

Three races peopled Turcomania — nomadic Turkomans pasturing their flocks in the mountains, and in the cities a mingled population of Greeks and Armenians engaged in the manufacture of carpets and silk fabrics. Conia or Iconium, one of its principal towns, had been the capital of the old Seljick monarchy.

As he passed through Greater Armenia, Marco visited Erzeroom, which he calls Arzinga. The whole country was strongly fortified, and, like Lesser Armenia and Turcomania, was governed by the Western Tartars, who flocked thither in summer for the purpose of grazing their herds. Marco learned there the tradition that Noah's ark still rested on the top of Mount Ararat, a legend which prevailed long after his death.

The next stage of his journey lay through Georgiania, the modern Georgia, between the Black and Caspian seas. The fact that the latter had no outlet was known to him, and he appears to have visited the petroleum wells, which are in operation to-day on its shores. His way may have been through the Pass of Derbend, or "Iron Gate of Alexander," to whose origin he refers in his book. He says nothing, however, of Nineveh, although Mansul, his next stopping-place of importance, was directly opposite, on

the banks of the Tigris. Mansul, the modern Mosul, from whose name the word muslin is derived because of its extensive manufacture of that material, was then, as now, a large and important town with a mixed population of Arabs, Christians, and Kurds. Twenty miles below it is Bagdad, called by Marco, Baldach or Boudas, which was larger then than it is to-day, and according to his account was the finest city in that part of the world. Besides its manufactures of silks and damasks, it was the seat of the study of Mohammedan law, physics, magic, and astronomy. When Marco visited it, it had been recently captured by Alau, Lord of the Tartars of the Levant, the brother of the Great Khan.

Before entering Persia, the Venetian explorer went on to Tauris, the modern Tabrez, which then belonged to Armenia. It was a wealthy city of great commercial activity, and surrounded by gardens which are still beautiful. With its native population, called by Marco "a very evil generation," were mingled merchants of almost all nationalities, including numerous Italians, who came to trade in textile fabrics and gems.

Saba or Savah, near Teheran, was the first city of Persia at which the Polos stopped, and Marco declares that the Magi started from this place to follow the Star of Bethelem. The version of the story, which he heard in the country around Savah, was a mixture of Christian and Persian tradition, which had been told four hundred years before his journey, but is now forgotten in that part of Asia.

Passing through Yasdi, now Yezd, his road lay across plains accurately described by him to Kerman, famous for its reverses of fortune and, in Polo's time, for its embroideries and highly tempered steel. At an earlier period it had been an independent kingdom, but in the thirteenth century it was under Tartar control, and formed part of Persia, according to Marco's book, although he did not include it among the eight kingdoms into which Persia was divided.

At a distance of a few days' journey from Kerman he was attacked by a band of Caraonas, a tribe of plunderers who,

from their retreats in eastern Persia, harrassed all the surrounding country. From them, doubtless, the Hazaras or modern Persian brigands are descended. The encounter took place during one of the dry fogs peculiar to those regions, a phenomenon which Marco attributes to magic on the part of his assailants. His whole party, except seven who escaped with him into the town of Conosalmi, were either killed or enslaved.

A few days' journey to the south, through plains and down mountain passes, brought the traveller to the plain of Formosa, the "Paradise of Persia." Abounding with streams, and woods full of tropical birds, it extended to the Sea of India, or Persian Gulf, where there was a city Ormus, which carried on an extensive trade in spices, gems, and ivory with Indian merchants. Marco tells of terrific sand storms prevailing in the vicinity during the period of the simoon, and of heat so intense that the inhabitants could endure it only by lying in the water a part of each day.

The last city of Persia visited by Polo was Balc, now Balkh, in northern Afghanistan. From it he passed on to Badakshan, a country whose rulers claimed descent from Alexander and the daughter of Darius. Here he found great mineral wealth, including the finest rubies in the world.

At this point he seems to have departed from his main route and to have gone south into Cashmire; then, following the course of the Oxus, he entered the plateau of Pamir, called by the Tartars the "Roof of the World." A trace of his journey still remains in this tableland (of whose existence Europe first learned from his writings) in the name of the sheep, which have been called the Ores Poli. During his forty days' journey across it, Marco saw neither plants nor human habitation, and discovered that fire neither burned as brightly as usual nor gave as much heat, although he attributed the fact to the intense cold rather than to the altitude. His account of Pamir and his statement that it was the highest land in the world were considered exaggerations until a later exploration proved their truth.

His next stopping-place was Cascar (Kashgar), which was a fertile province belonging to the Khan, where there were many Nestorian Christians. He does not appear to have visited Sarmarcand, and what knowledge he had of it was probably imparted by his father. Leaving Kashgar, he entered Great Turkey by the province of Yarkan or, as it is now spelled, Yarkand, and continued his journey to Lop, now Lob, on the edge of the Desert of Gobi. Travellers, he says, were accustomed to rest here a week before beginning the thirty days' ride across. Like all waste places, either deserts or the unknown regions of the ocean, Gobi was supposed to be the abode of spirits, whom each traveller heard calling to one another across the sand hills, or whispering his name in his ears to draw him away from his companions to perish. There were other sounds, as of musical instruments, all caused, of course, by the wind in the sand.

At the expiration of thirty days, Marco arrived at Taugut, the old name for the present Chinese province of Kausuh, on whose outskirts stood the City of Sachiu, now known as Shachau, meaning sand district. The country of Chingintabas, bordering on the Great Desert, was visited only by the elder Polos. Marco learned that asbestos, which he calls salamander, was found here in one of the Altai ranges. He describes "salamander" as a substance existing in veins in these mountains. When crushed and washed, he says, it separated into fibres like wool. In this state it was made into cloth. Marco writes that the Khan sent a napkin of this material to the Pope.

Through Sukclur or Suchan he continued his journey to the capital of Taugut, Campichu, the modern Kauchan, where he dwelt a year, because it was a police regulation that no foreigner should proceed farther without permission from Pekin. During his stay he had opportunity to learn much of the people and their ways, and here first became acquainted with Chinese customs, such as cremation and the practice of burning paper figures of animals and money to supply the wants of the dead in another world. He found numerous idols, and

In

lamisaries full of Buddhist monks. Campichu, especially, he says, there were a great number of recumbent figures of colossal size, and monasteries where the recluses performed scrupulously the fasts and rites of their religion. It was a flourishing city, inhabited by Nestorian Christians, Saracens, and Idolaters, as he calls the followers of Buddha.

Leaving the direct road at Campichu, Marco travelled north to Etzina, a city also of Taugut, and for forty days beyond, over an uninhabited waste to Caracorau, the former residence of Prester John, whose fame for centuries excited such interest in Europe, and affected the mind of Columbus. This imaginary potentate, priest as well as monarch, was first heard of about the year 1165, through an extravagant letter supposed to have been addressed by him to the Pope. According to Polo, he was Ung Khan, the suzerain and father-in-law of Tamerbau, by whom he was conquered. It is known that Ung Khan was chief of a Christian tribe, the Keraits. It has been thought that the tales of Prester John may have originated in some report of the Grand Lama, or that some Nestorian priest may have gained possession of a kingdom in Eastern Asia, or that the story was connected with legends of the immortality of St. John the Divine, who styles himself in two gospels ὁ πρεσβύτερος.

Caracoran was, probably, the northern limit of the Venetian's wanderings; for though he describes the country of Bargu between the Great Desert and the Polar Sea, it is evident that his knowledge of it was from hearsay, and that, returning to Campichu, he proceeded to Tenduc, the former country of Prester John. It was ruled by a Christian king, George, a descendant of the famous Ung Khan. Marco speaks of this as the land of Gog and Magog, but adds that the natives called it Ung and Mongul, from the names of two races once existing there. Ung, he says, was the title of the original inhabitants, while Mongul was another name for the Tartars. Colonel Yule thinks the Ung were identical with the Ung Kut, a Turkish tribe employed by the Kin emperors of Cathay to guard the Great Wall. It is remarkable that though

he was at this time in the neighborhood of the Wan-li-chang, Marco never mentions it, and this is the stranger, because its old name was the "Rampart of Gog and Magog."

From Tendec to the frontiers of Cathay, there was a seven days' journey, through towns all engaged in manufacturing the cloths of silk and gold so eagerly sought after by European merchants.

During the summer months the Khan's residence was at Chandu, and consisted of two buildings, one of marble, the other of bamboo. The cane palace was particularly splendid; the exterior was gilded and held down by silk cords, while within it was supported by gilt and lacquered columns, each resting on a five-clawed dragon, the imperial emblem.

Chandu was probably the last stoppingplace of the Polos before their arrival at the capital. When they appeared at court, Cublai received them most graciously; and as Marco was quick at learning the Tartar language and customs, he speedily gained the imperial favor, and was sent as embassador to a distant country. On his return, he related to the Khan all the information he had been able to acquire. This established him at once as a royal favorite, and the next seventeen years of his life were spent in most important and distant missions; but wherever he went, whether as an ambassador or travelling simply for his own pleasure, he was careful to collect all knowledge that might interest the Khan.

Cambaluc, meaning City of the Emperor, had been adopted by Cublai as his capital in 1264. But, convinced that it was an unlucky place, he built across the river a new town called Tatu,' which was the origin of the co-called Tartar City that to-day forms half of Pekin. Modern Pekin is so like Marco's description of Cambaluc in many ways, that it furnishes one of the strongest proofs of the accuracy of his writings. Here, in winter, the Khan lived in his great palace, whose walls measured a mile on each side and were intersected by towers stored with military equipments and

1 Great Court.

treasure. The exterior of the building was gay with color, and the interior reresplendent with gold, silver, and paintings of beasts, idols, and heroes.

The broad streets and squares described by Polo may still be seen at Pekin, as may also the massive towers on the ramparts. A thousand men guarded each gate, and at night no one was allowed to be abroad after a certain hour. In the suburbs, merchants from all parts of Asia were constantly coming and going; for the most enormous quantities of silk and the most precious commodities that the empire could furnish were daily brought to the capital. Gold and precious stones were bought only by the Khan, who paid for them with paper money, made from the bark of the mulberry tree. This was used throughout his dominions.

The government was administered by two tribunals of twelve men each, subject to the Khan alone. Of these, the Thai, which controlled the military affairs, was the higher court, as was but natural, since Cublai had gained his throne by conquest. The Sing governed the thirtyfour provinces, and had charge of the finances.

Cublai evidently intended to be a beneficent monarch. No taxes were demanded from districts or individuals who had suffered financial loss, the royal storehouses were opened in times of famine, and the charities dispensed at the palace of Cambaluc were on so vast a scale that the Khan was regarded by many of his subjects almost as a god.

In his description of Tartar customs, Polo furnishes a most conclusive evidence of the originality of his book, in his mention of the use of mineral coal, although he considered it a black stone.

According to Marco's record, he was sent by royal command on a four months, excursion to the west. His first stoppingplace was Juju, now Cho-Chan; near it two roads branched out, one into Cathay, by which he set out on his journey, the other toward Mangi, which he followed at a later period. Passing through Pianfu or Pingyanfu, he reached the banks of the Caramoran, now known as the

1 Black River.

Ho-ang-ho, which, he tells us, was so wide and deep that no bridge could span it. All the neighboring towns were populous and wealthy in a marked degree, for they were situated in the heart of extensive silk-producing regions, and their inhabitants lived by commerce or by weaving the gorgeous eastern fabrics and gold tissues so desired in Europe.

The modern capital of Shansi, Singanfu, then Kinjanfu, is an historic city, once the home of emperors, and the seat of early Eastern Christianity. That it was even then a place of importance is shown by the suffix fu added.to the name, which denotes a city of the first class, having smaller towns under its control.

From the southern part of Shansi, a mountainous country known to Marco as the province of Cun-Cun, he arrived at the boundaries of Cathay and Mangi, or of northern and southern China. Beyond were the province and city of Sindafu. Through the town flowed the Kiang, covered with countless vessels, and crossed by a quaint covered bridge, where toll was taken for the Khan.

From Sindafu, or Chingtu-fu, Marco traversed a portion of the plateau of Thibet, which was one of Cublai's possessions. Although gold was found in the rivers, money was unknown among the inhabitants, whom he calls "the greatest brigands upon earth." Twenty days' riding brought him to Caindu, on the frontiers of Thibet and Burmah. This, with its abundance of pearls and turquoises, was a source of considerable revenue to the Khan. Gold, too, was found in the Brins, which must have been the upper portion of the Yang-tse-Kiang, called in that region the "River of Golden Sands."

Going south, Polo perhaps descended the Yumnan mountains to Amien, which is identical with Burmah. At its capital, Mien, he writes, there were two towers, one covered with gold, the other with silver. Returning to Juju, he followed the southern road toward Mangi. Along his route, near the Grand Canal, were wealthy manufacturing towns, for here in Shantung was the chief silk-producing country of the Middle Ages. Crossing the Caramoran, he found himself in