KOFF

stitious notions of the peasantry, they preside over all domestic operations, many of which they perform. The name of the metal cobalt is derived from the above.

Koff. A small two-masted vessel, formerly employed in the Dutch fisheries. It had two masts, main and fore, with a large spritsail abaft each. This arrangement enabled her to sail very close to the wind, and she could set squaresails if the wind happened to be astern. Kokoona (Cing. kokoon). A large forest tree of the order Hippocrateaceae, native of Ceylon. The yellow corky bark is used by the Cinghalese in the preparation of a cephalic snuff; and a lamp oil is expressed from the seeds.

Kola Nut. Kola, Gola, Guro or Goro Nuts are the seeds of the Cola acuminata. They are largely used as food and medicine by the natives of West Central Africa, and are highly valued, commercially, socially, and even politically. From the researches of Drs. Daniell and Attfield (Pharmaceutical Journal, March 1865) it would seem that their virtues must be ascribed to the presence of about two per cent. of theine, a substance existing also in tea, coffee, guarana, and matè, from one or other of which, beverages are prepared by Europeans, Americans, and Asiatics. Kola, like the substances just mentioned, has long been known to produce sleeplessness when eaten. It is curious and interesting to find that in all quarters of the globe man's instinct has induced him to select for the preparation of beverages, plants which differ greatly in appearance, characters, and habits, but which contain the same active principle.

Kolpodes, Kolpoda (Gr. Koλons). The name of a genus of Polygastric Infusories, characterised by their flat and sinuous figure.

Komenic Acid. [COMENIC ACID.] Königite. A variety of Brochantite of a transparent emerald or blackish green colour, found at Katherinenburg in Siberia. It was named after König, late keeper of the minerals in the British Museum.

Könleinite. A fossil resin, found in the Brown Coal of Uznach in Switzerland and near Redwitz in Bavaria.

KREATINE

Houpholite (Gr. Koûpos, light, and xíeos, a stone). A species of zeolite or Prehnite from the Pyrenees: it occurs in small rhomboidal plates, with a pearly lustre, and of a yellowish green colour.

Kraal. The Zulu name for a village. Kraken (Ger.). A name applied to a fabulous marine monster of gigantic size.

Krameria (after the Kramers, German botanists). An anomalous genus, allied on the one hand to Leguminose, and on the other to Polygalacea, with which latter it is most frequently associated, or made a distinct family under the name of Krameriaceae. They are branching undershrubs, with simple or trifoliate leaves, and racemose flowers. K. triandra, one of the simple-leaved species, is thought to have yielded the Rhatany roots formerly obtained from Peru, though all the species have probably similar astringent properties. Mr. Hanbury has recently shown (Pharm. Journ. 2 ser. vi. 461) that a very excellent form of Rhatany known as Saranella Rhatany, which has to a great extent superseded the former, and which is imported from New Grenada, is produced by a variety of K. lxina to which the name of granatensis has been given. Rhatany is considered as a useful astringent medicine.

Krameric Acid. An acid obtained from the root of the Krameria triandra, or rhatany. Krantzite. A fossil resin, occurring in the Brown Coal of Lattorf near Bernsberg. Named after Dr. Krantz of Bonn.

Kraut, Sour. [SAUER KRAUT.]

Kreasote, Creosote (a word coined from Gr. κpéas, flesh, and ow(w, I preserve). Kreasote seems to be the principal source of the peculiar odour and of the antiseptic and preservative qualities of wood-smoke. When properly purified, it is a colourless oily-looking liquid of great refractive and dispersive power, of a penetrating smoky odour and a burning taste: its sp. gr. is about 1'04; it remains fluid at 170; it burns with a sooty flame; is sparingly soluble in water, and is neutral to test paper. It dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, benzol, and acetic acid; and forms a crystalline compound with potash. It coagulates albumen; and a solution of it, containing not more than 1 per cent., preserves meat from putrefaction. The efficacy of crude pyroligneous acid as a preservative of provisions, and the peculiar smoky flavour which it confers upon them, appear to be due

Kotschubite. A mineral of a carminered colour, discovered in the gold-washings of Karadinsk in the Ural. Named after Von Kotschuby, the Russian mineralogist.

Köttigite. A native arsenate of zinc, containing cobalt and nickel, and a trace of lime, from the Cobalt Mine Daniel, near Schneeberg in Saxony. Named after its discoverer, Köttig.

Koumiss. A vinous liquid, obtained in Tartary by fermenting the whey of mare's milk.

diluted, but when largely diluted it has been found effectual in checking vomiting, and as an application in toothache for the destruction of the nerve. It appears to be closely related to phenol (carbolic acid), and the formula CHO, has been assigned to it.

Kreatine, Creatine (Gr. κpéas, flesh). A crystallisable organic substance contained in the juice of the muscular flesh of animals. The term kreatinine has been applied to a product of its decomposition. Kreatine is represented as C.H.NO,, and kreatinine as C.H,ON。.

KREITTONITE

Kreittonite. A black variety of Automolite (Zinc-Spinel) found at Bodenmais in Bavaria.

Kremersite. A native chloride of potassium allied to Sylvine, and met with in rubyred octahedrons at Vesuvius. Named after Kremers, by whom it was analysed. Kremnitz White. A pure variety of White Lead, or Carbonate of Lead. [WHITE LEAD.]

Krishna. In Hindu Mythology, a divine being, produced from one of the hairs of Vishnu, and in his turn producing Brahma or Rudra the destroyer. (Muir, Sanskrit Texts, ch. ii. sec. 5; Godfrey Higgins, Anacalypsis.) Krisuvigite. A variety of Brochantite, found at Krisuvig in Iceland. Erokidolite. [CROCIDOLITE.] Kronos. [ZEUS.]

Krum Horn. An old musical instrument, resembling a cornet. The name has been corrupted by organ-builders into that of the cremona stop of the organ.

Kryolite. [CRYOLITE.]

Erystalline (Gr. кρúσтaλλos, clear ice, crystal). A term applied by Unverdorben to phenylamine, which forms crystallisable compounds with the acids, and which he obtained from animal empyreumatic oil. [ANILINE.]

Kshatriya or Cshatriya. [CASTE.] Xufic. An epithet given to the ancient Arabic characters; from Kufa, a town on the Euphrates.

Kühnite. A native arsenate of lime and magnesia found in dirty-white or honey-yellow masses with a waxy lustre, at Longbanshyttan in Sweden. Named after Kühn, by whom it was analysed.

Kupfer Nickel. A term applied by the German miners to a native alloy of nickel and arsenic.

Kupfer Schiefer (Ger.). A series of schistose beds, often bituminous and very fossiliferous, lying near the base of the magnesian limestone or Permian series of deposits in Germany. The beds thus named are worked at Mansfeld in Thuringia for a singular deposit of argentiferous copper, which is mixed up mechanically with the shale and sand, forming a small percentage of the rock. The beds have long been worked and are not unimportant in an economic sense.

Kupferblende or Copper Blende. Tennantite, with part of the iron replaced by zine; from near Freiberg in Saxony.

Kupferblüthe. [CHALCOTRICHITE.]

Kupferpecherz. An impure variety of Chrysocolla, containing a large amount of Brown Iron-ore, found at Tourinsk in the Ural, and at the Basin of Mines in Nova Scotia.

Kurrajong. A native Australian name for several fibre-yielding plants, as Hibiscus, heterophyllus, Plagianthus sidoides, Commersonia platyphylla, &c.

Kuteera or Kutera. A kind of gum obtained from Cochlospermum Gossypium.

Kyanise (named after Kyan, the inventor of the process). A mode of preserving timber from decay, by charging it with a solution of corrosive sublimate. [DRY ROT.]

Kunkur. A very peculiar deposit widely spread over the peninsula of India, and apparently corresponding in age and in the circumstances of its accumulation with the drift of England. It is a compact nodular calcareous clay with many concretions and very few fossils. It is found at all levels up to 3,000 feet above the sea. It is not generally stratified, and varies a good deal in different localities. In composition it is chiefly calcareous, containing about 70 per cent. of carbonate of lime, 15 per cent. of silica, and nearly 20 per cent. of alumina.

Kupaphrite (Lat. cuprum, copper, and Gr. appós, froth). Copper Froth. [TYROLITE.]

Kupfer Diaspore or Copper Diaspore. A variety of Phosphocalcite, with half an equi

[CYANITE.]

Kymatin. A variety of Asbestos found at Kühnsdorff in Saxony.

Kypholite (Gr. Kupós, bent, and λíos, a stone). A variety of Serpentine.

Kyriological (Gr. Kupioλoyikós, describing literally). A term applied by Warburton, in his Divine Legation (book ii. s. 4), to that class of Egyptian hieroglyphics in which a part is conventionally put to represent a whole e.g. a pair of armed hands for a battle, a scaling ladder for a siege, &c.; distinguished from the tropical, in which visible objects are used as emblems, or figuratively. [HIEROGLYPHICS.]

Kyrosite. A variety of White Iron Pyrites or Marcasite, containing arsenic and copper, which is found at the Briccius Mine, near Anna. berg in Saxony, and also in Chili.

very exhausting, and involve much physical or mental exertion; but if they are satisfied in themselves, and reflect solely on some immediate end, they have no direct economical significance. The labour of an amateur in a game of cricket may be very great, but it has no economical meaning; that of a professional cricketer, who is paid for his time and skill, has a meaning, because it has a market value. The toil of purely scientific observation may be great and unremitting, its results may be of signal benefit to mankind, but it is not economically appraised. But if the same labour is devoted to such ends as are susceptible of pecuniary compensation or material advantage to the student or observer, they fall within the definition of labour. Nor is it necessary, as some economists have suggested, that the exertion should be repulsive, disagreeable, or compulsory. It is quite possible that economical labour may be as agreeable to the worker, as any satisfaction felt in the mere pursuit of pleasure. It is conceivable that advantage and enjoyment should coexist in most occupations. For instance, the discovery of agricultural improvements, in the use of new manures, in the adaptation of machinery, in the trial of new seeds, and in crossing of seeds, may give as much pleasure as profit to the experimenter. The limitation often put upon labour, to the effect that it should be more or less disagreeable, is not an economical, but an ethical consideration, and one that is of by no means universal application.

The expression unproductive labour is also ambiguous and misleading, even though it has been sanctioned by the high authority of Adam Smith and many of his successors. It may be used of society collectively; it may apply to the result of individual exertion, and have a primary reference to the satisfaction of an individual's work. In relation to society, its significance is exceedingly vague, unless we are to consider that labour only as productive which is relative to the production of the lowest necessaries of life, and to no means of comfort, enjoyment, or elegance. If, however, we may say that human exertions are stimulated by the desire of procuring the largest amount of advantage by the least possible expenditure of force, and that such an impulse is the key to all economical progress, it would be idle to exclude from the class of productive labourers any whose avocations are not degrading, vicious, mischievous, or criminal. Nor is it likely, unless any artificial regulations of society favour particular classes or particular interests, that such callings as those which minister to what are called luxury or enjoyment will ever be excessive or dangerous. All distinct enactments or privileges hindering the distribution of wealth have indeed a tendency towards developing those kinds of occupation which are relative to exaggerated and extravagant expenditure, but they also cripple the just progress of society, and often call into existence classes of persons whose business is to supply those very vicious and mischievous tastes which are ruinous to the individuals in whose favour the pri

vilege was created. But labour may be unproductive to the individual, i.e. he may fail to secure the advantage which he has proposed to himself, and he may have wasted his capital and exertion. Errors as to the market or saleable value of any commodity or service are no doubt of frequent occurrence, and often entail much individual loss; but in a state of progressive wealth they are far counterbalanced by labour which has achieved its purpose, and which adds to individual advantage and collective prosperity.

Economists, too, have been apt to give an artificial limitation to the word labour, by confining it to such exertions as are almost or nearly mechanical. But the term labour is as fully applicable to the services of a statesman as it is to the functions of a ploughman or a spinner, and both in the main are as much undertaken for the sake of prospective remuneration. On this point Adam Smith is abundantly distinct. Dividing as he does the distribution of the gross product of labour into wages, profit, and rent, he continually shows that wages are disguised under the name of profit, and implies that by profit he intends to mean only that remuneration of capital which is relative to and fixed by the current interest on advances. It is true that the term wages is generally limited to that method of payment in which the capitalist remunerates a portion of the labour expended on the article in which he trades; but the distinction between wages and that portion of his profits which he appropriates as the reward of his own energies, skill, and superintendence, is merely an error of popular language, and one which, if uncorrected, tends to serious inconvenience in the interpretation of various social and fiscal expedients. It is hardly necessary to say, that by far the largest portion of national income is the product of labour, and that this product is continually increased by the substitution of mechanical forces for the mere muscular labour of man. It is also clear that the margin on which taxation can operate can be that only which is beyond the necessary subsistence of the labourer, his security against ordinary contingencies, and what is needed for the replacement of capital.

Labour is, economically speaking, set in motion by capital; in other words, the labour must be called into existence, and supplied with the means of subsistence during the time in which production goes on, and up to the period at which the produce of labour is exchanged. Hence, however abundant labour may be, and however urgent the demand for the produce of labour, no product will be forthcoming unless capital be supplied by which labour may be set in motion. The excessive demand for cotton wool which has characterised the cotton manufacture during the last four years has only been very partially supplied. The area over which cotton can be cultivated contains, perhaps, a wider geographical range than the limits assigned to any other botanical production, and the labour available for its culture is amply

LABOUR RENTS

sufficient for a quantity far in excess of any demand hitherto existent. The crop, too, is in several species of cotton derived from an annual. But, as is well known, the manufacture of cotton goods has been almost paralysed by a sudden deficiency in the customary supply. The reason, however, why the demand has not been satisfied, is due to the fact, that the capital necessary to stimulate the labour has been wanting. [PROFIT; MANUFACTURE; TRADES' UNION; WAGES.]

Labour Rents. In the rudest states of society, as in the most civilised, the wealthier and the more influential classes are sustained by the possession of land, a portion of the produce of which they secure to themselves by the fact of appropriation, and by allowing the privilege of labour upon the surface to the cultivator of the soil. When capital is scanty and the union of society feeble, the lord of the soil has been accustomed, in all those parts of the world in which agricultural pursuits prevail, to grant portions of the land which he possesses, to be held either on permanent or precarious tenure by his dependants, on the condition that they contribute a portion of their labour to cultivating that which he retains. Such was the tenure of villenage in England, during the prevalence of the feudal system, a tenure gradually extinguished, or rather substituted by copyholds, in consequence of the gradual exchange of prædial services for fixed money payments. [MANOR.] Such was till lately the serf system in Russia; such is practically the ryot system in many parts of British India.

Labour rents were in their first institution a necessary process for the maintenance of an upper or governing class. In England it is not too much to say that in very early times labour rents, or pecuniary compensations in the place of such rents, formed the chief revenues of the feudal barons. But it will be obvious that they are never satisfactory. The labour which is compulsory can never be heartily given, and will always be wasteful and dear. Hence a reform in such a tenure is inevitable, when a community makes any notable advance in civilisation and wealth. There can be little doubt that one of the chief causes which contributed to the great political influence of this country in the middle ages, is to be found in the fact of its having been early able to commute labour rents for fixed money payments, and so to secure a free and improving body of yeomen.

Labourers, Statutes of. Towards the close of the first half of the fourteenth century, a plague of novel and excessive virulence sprang up in the farthest recesses of Eastern Asia. It appears to have travelled very slowly towards Europe; for if the chronological statements of the age can be depended on, it took nearly ten years for this visitation to pass from China to Western Europe. When it did reach Europe, its ravages were fearful. After every allowance being made for exaggeration, it seems

The

LABRADOR FELSPAR difficult to doubt that it destroyed nearly half the inhabitants. Called at first the Black Death, it has survived as an endemic to our own times under the name of the Turkey, Levant, or Egyptian plague. It forms the background to Boccaccio's Decameron, and it is said that, like that of the Athenian plague, its incidence was accompanied by an excessive licentiousness and depravity of manners. last notable visit of this pestilence to this country occurred in the great plague of London. Its ravages, though not confined to the lower orders, were nevertheless most destructive among the poor; and this for the very obvious reason, that sanitary conditions were wholly unknown to our forefathers, and that the quarantine regulations of the time, under a show of precaution, in reality secured hotbeds for the preservation and spread of infection.

It has been observed, that there is reason to believe the statement that half the working population was destroyed. The immediate effect of the plague was that the rate of wages was, on the whole, doubled in consequence of the scarcity of hands. For instance, while the rate of threshing wheat had stood on an average at 5d. the quarter, it instantly rose to 10d. or 1s., and similarly with other piecework. Daywork also, and all materials, the value of which depends largely upon the labour expended in producing them, as iron and cloth, rose in proportionate rates: the profit on agricultural operations, a considerable portion of the landholder's estate being at that time cultivated for him by a bailiff, fell to a minimum, and the owners of land were threatened with a very large deduction from their customary incomes. The time also, that of the wars between England and France, was one of heavy taxation on personal property, and of continual military service. Hence the aid of parliament was invoked, in order to fix the rate of wages; and the first statute regulating the price of labour was enacted in 1350. The statute fixing the rate of wages was accompanied by others limiting the price of the necessaries of life. Both enactments were absurd, but the latter in a much higher degree than the former. From this time forward, the legislature has attempted to regulate, in various ways, the prices of labour; in earlier times by fixing the rate in parliament, in later by ordaining that the justices of peace in the several counties should meet and determine wages for each current year. Coordinate with these limitations were those which provided against the combinations of labourers, with a view to increase the rate of wages. All these laws were finally repealed in 1826, but they have left a heritage in the reactionary remedy of trades' unions.

Labrador Felspar. Labradorite. A variety of Felspar originally brought from the coast of Labrador. When viewed in certain directions it exhibits a beautiful play of colours: and the mutable opalescent tints of blue, red, green and yellow, which are reflected from the