in amorphous masses, embedded in a coarse-ecliptic is to planetary astronomy-a plane grained granite. It was named after the Rus- of ultimate reference, the ground-plane of the sian chemist Gadolin, who discovered in it a sidereal system. [GALAXY.] new earth, yttria. Gadus (Gr. yddos). [GADOIDS.] Gaff. The boom or yard extending the upper edge of what are called fore and aft sails. The gaff turns on the mast against which its thicker end rests; the mast, as an axis, occupying a semicircular cavity in the end of the gaff. This cavity is known as the gaff's jaws. It is supported by two independent ropes; the throat halliards at the mast, and the peak halliards at the outer end. It is steadied, when the sail is not set, by ropes at the extremity called vangs. Gage or Gauge (Fr. jauge). In Architecture, the length of a slate, or tile, exposed beyond the lap; also the measure to which anything is confined. Plasterers use the word to signify the greater or less quantity of plaster of Paris used with the common lime and hair to accelerate the setting; bricklayers use it to express the state of mortar: thus, they say a mortar is gauged stiff, or thin, as it partakes of one or other of those qualities. Engineers use the word to express the distance between rails, the thickness of boiler plate, wire, copper, and other materials. Galactic Poles. The two opposite points of the heavens, situated at 90° from the Galactic Circle. Galactin (Gr. yáλa, milk). A substance yielding gelatin found in milk by Morin. (Journal für Pharmacie [3] xxv. 423.) Galactite (Gr. ydλa). A fossil substance, not unlike French chalk. When immersed in water, it has the colour of milk. Galactodendron (Gr. yáλa, milk; dévôpov, a tree). [BROSIMUM; COW-TREE; GALACTINE.] Galactopoietic (Gr. yáλa, milk, and woiéw, I make). A term applied by some medical writers to diet and medicine supposed to promote the secretion of milk. Galangal. A dried root brought from China; it has an aromatic smell, and a pungent bitter flavour, and was formerly used in medicine. The greater galangal is the produce of the Kampferia Galanga, and the lesser of the Maranta Galanga. Galanthus (Gr. ydλa, milk, and ǎveos, a flower). The Snowdrop genus, especially interesting in gardens as being the 'first pale blossom of the unripened year.' The common Snowdrop is G. nivalis; a larger and finer species, G. plicata, is a native of the Crimea. Galatea. [ACIS.] GAGE OF GAUGE. In Physics, any apparatus for measuring pressure, force, height, depth or Galathæa. A genus of long-tailed (masize. Thus the gage of an air-pump indicates crourous) Crustacea, including some very beauthe extent to which the rarefaction in the re-tiful species (G. rugosa, strigosa et squamifera), ceiver has been carried. [AIR-PUMP.] The steam gage measures the pressure of steam in any vessel; the wind gage, the force of the wind; the tide gage, the height of the tide, &c. [ANEMOMETER; HYDROMETER.] Gahnite. A native aluminate of zinc, called also Automolite. Named after Gahn, who first described it. Gaillarde. The name of a lively dance peculiar to Italy, and supposed to have been practised by the ancient Romans, whence it is sometimes designated Romanesque. Gainage. In old English writers, this word signifies the draught oxen, horses and their furniture, which were left free when a villein was amerced, that agriculture might not be interrupted. Gaining Twist. In rifled arms, a twist or spiral inclination of the grooves, which becomes more rapid towards the muzzle. Galactic Circle (Gr. yaλakтIKós, milky). A term first used by Sir John Herschel to denote that great circle of the heavens to which the course of the Milky Way, as traced by the unaided eye, most nearly conforms. It is inclined, at an angle of about 63°, to the equator, and cuts that circle in two points, whose right ascensions are respectively about 0 h. 47 m. and 12 h. 47 m., so that its northern and southern poles respectively are situated in R.A. 12 h. 47 m., N.P.D. 63°, and R.A. 0 h. 47 m., N.P.D. 117°. This circle, Sir John Herschel observes, is to sidereal what the invariable occasionally found on the British coasts. The true Galathea have the thorax oblong or ovoid, the median antennæ produced, and the pincers elongated. This term is derived from the name of the nymph Galatea. Galaxy (Gr. δ γαλαξίας κύκλος). The Via Lactea or Milky Way. This luminous zone, so remarkable in a clear night, must have attracted the notice of the first observers of the heavens, and its true nature seems to have been surmised at an early period. Manilius, in his Astronomicon, after alluding to the well-known mythological fable of its origin, asks Anne magis densâ stellarum turba corona Contexit flammas, et crasso lumine candet, Et fulgore nitet collato clarior orbis ? The explanation of the phenomenon here sug gested, namely, the condensed light of countless multitudes of small stars so crowded together as to be individually undistinguishable, is ascribed to Democritus, and its truth was confirmed, or at least rendered much more probable, immediately on the discovery of the telescope, Galileo himself enumerating among the advantages resulting from his instrument, that of putting an end to the disputes about the nature of the Milky Way. About the middle of the last century, Wright of Durham, and Kant and Lambert in Germany, speculated on the connection of the phenomenon with the general arrangement of the stars in space; but the first who undertook a systematic examination of the galaxy with telescopes of adequate power was Sir William Herschel, and to the indefatigable labours of this great astronomer, and to those of Sir John F. W. Herschel (who, during his memorable residence at the Cape, with the same telescope which had been used by his father, and by a similar process of examination, explored those regions of the sky which are invisible in our latitudes), astronomers are mainly indebted for the facts upon which any sound speculation respecting the constitution of the heavens can as yet be founded. The Milky Way, as seen by the naked eye, presents the appearance of a succession of luminous patches of varying intensity. Its breadth is very unequal, in some parts hardly exceeding 5°, in others extending to 16°; and there is a part between Serpentarius and Antinous where the two branches into which it is there divided occupy together a breadth of 22°. Its course through the heavens is nearly that of a great circle inclined at an angle of about 63° to the equator, and cutting that circle in two points whose right ascensions are, respectively, 0 h. 47 m. and 12 h. 47 m. Struve remarks that the most condensed stratum does not lie exactly in one plane, but appears rather to be contained in two different planes inclined at an angle of 100, and intersecting in the plane of the celestial equator, the sun being at a little distance from the line of intersection. This slight deviation from a great circle had been remarked at an earlier period, and Lambert supposed it might be occasioned by the place of the sun being not exactly in the middle of the zone, but a little on one side. It is convenient, however, in speaking generally of the system of the galaxy, to refer it to a great circle of the sphere; and the great circle to which it most nearly conforms has been named by Sir John Herschel the Galactic Circle. At several parts of its course the Milky Way throws off streams or branches. In Perseus a branch is sent off which is traceable to a considerable distance. Another proceeds from a point near the star m Puppis, nearly on the southern tropic. In Argo it opens out into a wide fan-like expanse, nearly 20° in breadth, which terminates abruptly, and at this part its continuity is interrupted by a wide gap. At a Centauri it again subdivides. At Sagittarii it suddenly collects into a vivid oval mass, about 6° in length and 4° in breadth, so exceedingly rich in stars that a moderate calculation gives upwards of 100,000. On the other hand, spaces occur in the very middle of its course, which appear, to the naked eye, entirely devoid of stars, and perfectly black. The most remarkable of these is situated in the Southern Cross, where the Milky Way approaches the nearest to the south pole, and so striking is its appearance that the early navigators designated it by the name of the coal sack. This space is of an irregular pearshaped form; it is about 8° in length and 5° in breadth, and was described and figured by the Abbé Feuillée in 1710. Lacaille correctly attributed its striking blackness to the effect of contrast with the luminosity of the Milky Way, which surrounds it on all sides, and which in this region is remarkably brilliant. It is to be remarked that the great increase in the number of stars observed in the neighbourhood of the galaxy is occasioned chiefly by the greater abundance of telescopic stars, i.e. of those below the sixth order of magnitude. Stars of the first magnitude are distributed over the sphere with tolerable uniformity. If, however, we take the whole number visible to the naked eye, a rapid increase is perceptible as we approach the limits of the galaxy; with respect to those of smaller magnitudes, the accumulation along that circle and its branches almost exceeds imagination. The minuteness of the stars indicates their enormous remoteness. As far as number is concerned it is estimated that of 20,000,000 visible in powerful telescopes 18,000,000 are in the Milky Way. From the relatively greater abundance of stars in the plane of the Galactic Circle than in the regions on either side of it, and from the indication of some preponderance on the southern side, Sir W. Herschel drew the conclusion that the galaxy is composed of a stratum of stars of which the thickness is inconsiderable in comparison with its length and breadth, and that the sun is placed not far from the middle of the stratum, somewhat nearer to its northern than to its southern surface, and near the point where it subdivides into two principal laminæ inclined at a small angle to each other. Assuming the real magnitudes of stars to be the same, on the average, through the whole sidereal system, he determined by a series of photometrical experiments that stars of the sixth magnitude (the least visible to the naked eye) are twelve times more remote than those of the first, and that the penetrating power of his twenty-foot telescope was seventy-five times greater than that of the naked eye, so that the smallest stars visible in the telescope are at a distance equal to 900 times the distance of Sirius. Now, as the average apparent breadth of the Milky Way is about 5°, its thickness at that great distance must be 900 x sin 5°, or equal to seventy-eight times the distance of Sirius, or more than six times the distance of the stars of the sixth magnitude. Therefore the Milky Way, even in the direction of its poles, extends to three times the distance of the smallest stars visible to the unaided eye, the sun being supposed at the centre of the stratum. Hence it follows that not only our solar system, but all the stars in the firmament visible to the naked eye, are plunged to a great depth in the stratum of stars composing the galaxy, and form an integral part of it. It must be kept in mind that the above conclusions are based on two hypotheses which are, at best, very precarious; and in fact both of them appear to have been abandoned by Sir W. Herschel himself in his later years. With respect to the first, namely, the distribution of the stars in space at nearly equal distances from each other, he remarks, in a paper pub GALAXY lished in 1817, that although a greater number of stars in the field of view may be taken in general as an indication of their extension to a greater distance, yet the gauges have in reality more direct reference to the condensation than to the distance, and hence a greater number in the field of view may be explained as well by a greater condensation of the galaxy as by a greater extension of its figure in the direction in which the stars appear most numerous. The other hypothesis, namely, that the telescope penetrates to the extreme boundaries of the galaxy, is subject to much doubt. Sir W. Herschel, speaking in 1818 of his fortyfoot telescope, the penetrating power of which he estimated to reach to 2,300 times the distance of Sirius, states, as his opinion, that even at this enormous distance the limit of the stratum was not attained, inasmuch as the telescope failed to resolve the nebulous appearance into stars, and he therefore concluded the stratum to be fathomless. Sir John Herschel thinks the limit has been attained only in certain directions: "Throughout by far the largest portion of the extent of the Milky Way in both hemispheres, the general blackness of the ground of the heavens on which its stars are projected, and the absence of that innumerable multitude and excessive crowding of the smallest visible magnitudes, and of the glare produced by the aggregate of multitudes too small to affect the eye singly, which the contrary supposition would appear to necessitate, must, we think, be considered unequivocal indications that its dimensions, in directions where these conditions obtain, are not only not infinite, but that the space-penetrating power of our telescopes suffices fairly to pierce through it and beyond it.' But, on the other hand, there are parts where not the slightest indication of a limit is discernible. 'Such is, in effect, the spectacle afforded by a very large portion of the Milky Way in that interesting region near the point of its bifurcation in Scorpio, where, through the hollows and deep recesses of its complicated structure, we behold what has all the appearance of a wide and indefinitely prolonged area, strewed over with discontinuous masses and clouds of stars, which the telescope at last refuses to analyse.' There is also another objection which has been raised by Struve, namely that the celestial spaces are not perfectly transparent, and that therefore the light of distant stars is enfeebled more than in proportion to their distance. The only conclusions which can be safely drawn are the following: 1. That the whole light of the Milky Way is nothing but the light of innumerable stars of all magnitudes down to the faintest point perceptible in the best telescopes. 2. That the phenomena, on the whole, agree with the supposition that the stars of our firmament, instead of being scattered through space indifferently in all directions, form a stratum of which the thickness is small in comparison with its length and breadth, and that the sun occupies a place near the middle of the GALENA thickness, and near the point where the stratum is subdivided into two principal lamine. 3. That if all the fixed stars in the firmament be regarded as forming one great system - that of the galaxy-we are still in complete ignorance of its extent, and without the least idea of what may be called its ground plan. Galbanum (Lat.; Gr. xaλBán). A slightly fetid gum resin, produced by the Galbanum officinale. It is imported from Turkey and the East Indies for medical use, but is of little importance. Galbula (Lat. the yellow bird). A genus of Scansorial birds closely allied to the kingfishers by their elongated sharp-pointed beak, the upper ridge of which is angular; and by their short feet, the anterior toes of which are almost wholly united: these toes, however, are not precisely the same as those of the kingfishers. The plumage of the species of Galbula which are called by the French jacamars, is not so smooth as that of the kingfishers, and always has a metallic lustre. They are solitary birds, that live in wet forests, feed on insects, and build on low bushes. Galbulus. In Botany, a term invented by Gærtner, to denote a form of fruit similar to a cone, excepting that the galbulus is round, and has the heads of the carpels much enlarged, as in the fruit of the juniper. Gale. The Myrica Gale, a small native fragrant bush, of the order Myricaceæ, found in boggy places. Gale of Wind. The Sea term for a continued storm of wind: the lowest degree is the fresh gale, the next a strong gale, and the last a heavy or hard gale, called also a whole gale. Galea (Lat.). In Antiquity, the headpiece or helmet used in battle by the Roman soldiers. The galea was used for the same defensive purposes as the cassis; but differed from it in this, that while the cassis was the term properly applied to helmets made of metal, the galea was originally of hides. GALEA (Lat.). In Botany, the helmet or arched part of a flower, as seen in the Aconite; hence galeate, helmeted. Galega (Gr. ydλa, because it is supposed to increase the milk of animals, especially of goats). The name of a genus of plants, including G. officinalis, or Goat's Rue, a plant of little taste, and eaten in Italy in salads. It was formerly held in some repute as a cordial in fevers. The genus consists of perennial herbs of the Leguminous family, nearly related to Glycyr rhiza. Galena (Lat.). Native sulphide of lead, composed, when pure, of 86-6 per cent. of lead and 13-4 sulphur. It forms bunches and veins in igneous and sedimentary rocks, especially in Carboniferous Limestone, in which it often fills irregular cavities and fissures. It occurs in amorphous masses with a lamellar structure, frequently granular, especially when silver is present, sometimes almost compact, and crystallised in cubes, octahedrons, or their modifications. The colour is lead-grey, much like GALENISTS that of the metal lead, with a metallic lustre, and sometimes superficially covered with an iridescent tarnish. Galena is the most abundant ore of lead, and that from which the greater part of the metal is obtained. Sometimes Galena is so rich in silver as to be worked almost entirely as an ore of that metal, as is the case at the mines of Saxony, the Harz, and those of Bleyberg in the Eifel. The largest lead mine in the world is that of Allenheads in Northumberland; and some of the purest metal is that produced at the Austrian mines of Nötsch in Carinthia. Galenists. In Ecclesiastical History, a subdivision of the sect called Waterlandians in the seventeenth century. In Medical History, the followers of Galen were so termed, in opposition to the practitioners of the chemical school. GALLERY them afford a purple dye. Like Madder, they belong to the order Galiacea. Gall (Gr. xoλ). [BILE.] Gall of Glass. The salts and other impurities which float upon the fused materials for the manufacture of glass, and which are skimmed off. They are also called sandiver. Gall Insects. The name of a family of Hemipterans, comprehending those of which the females, towards the period of oviposition, assume a globular form, analogous to the galls caused by the gallicoles. Gall Nuts. Excrescences produced by the cynips, a small insect which deposits its eggs in the tender shoots of the Quercus infectoria, a species of oak abundant in Asia Minor. When the maggot is hatched, it produces a morbid excrescence of the surrounding parts, and ultimately eats its way out of the nidus thus formed. The best galls are imported from Aleppo and Smyrna; their principal ingredients are tannic and gallic acids. The infusion of galls affords a dense white precipitate Galeopithecus (Gr. yaλh, a weasel; wíoŋкos, an ape). A genus of Insectivorous Mammalia, having the bones of the arm and leg, but not those of the digits, excessively elongated, and supporting extensive lateral folds of skin which in solution of gelatin, and a black precipitate are useful as a parachute, but not as organs of flight. The species are restricted to the great islands of the Indian Archipelago; their inferior incisors are remarkable for their complex form like the teeth of a comb. Galeruca (Lat. galerus, a cap or tuft). A genus of Tetramerous Coleoptera, now the type of an extensive family (Galerucida), including amongst other subgenera the noxious turnipflies (Haltica). All the Galerucide are vegetable feeders, both in their larva and in their perfect state. There are about a dozen known British species of Galeruca proper, which are small, and generally dark or dull-coloured beetles. Galiaceae (Galium, one of the genera). A natural order of herbaceous Exogens of the Cinchonal alliance, inhabiting the cooler parts of the world. They are distinguished from Cinchonacee by their square stems and verticillate leaves without stipules. The roots of Rubia tinctoria yield Madder, and those of R. cordifolia furnish the Munjeet dye of India. Galipea (the Guiana name). The genus of Rutacee yields the Angostura Bark of the Pharmacopoeia. It is said to be produced both by G. officinalis and G. Cuspuria, and hence is sometimes called Cusparia Bark. It is employed in medical practice as a tonic, and by the natives of Guiana to stupefy fish. Galipot. A white resin derived from the Pinus maritima. Galium (Gr. ydλa, milk). A genus of scrambling herbs, with stellately whorled leaves, small flowers often inconspicuous, and fruits consisting of two dry seed-vessels, each containing a single seed. G. Aparine, the Cleavers or Goosegrass, is a common weed in almost every hedgebank, and is remarkable for its globular fruits being covered with hooked prickles. The torrefied seeds are said to be a good substitute for coffee, and the flowers of Galium verum are used to curdle milk. The roots of some of with the ferric salts. The latter property leads to the use of galls in the manufacture of ink and of black dye; they are also used as an astringent in medicine. Galls. Local affections or diseases of plants, caused by the puncture of insects. They are produced by an excessive deposition of cellular tissue, and are of ro consequence to the general health of the individual subject to them. Gall-bladder. An oblong membranous receptacle attached to the under part of the liver. It retains the bile which regurgitates from the hepatic duct, and sends it through the cystic duct, which proceeds from its neck into the ductus communis choledochus, and thence into the duodenum. Gallstones. Concretions occasionally found in the gall-bladder and biliary ducts. They consist either of a peculiar fatty matter called cholesterin, or of inspissated bile, or of mixtures of the two. The gall-stones of the ox generally contain a peculiar yellow colouring matter which is valued by painters. Galleon (Ital. galeone). A name formerly applied to large and lofty ships of war: it was subsequently limited to the treasure ships which brought the riches of the New World to Spain. They were heavy unmanageable vessels. Gallery (Ital. galleria, Fr. galerie). In the Fine Arts, a term applied to a collection of works in painting or sculpture, or to the building containing it. The earliest gallery or museum of which there is any record was that of the Heræum or temple of Juno at Samos, to which a picture gallery (Tivakoońкn) was attached. The Pocile, or painted chamber, at Athens was a gallery of paintings, but not quite in the sense now applied. The Egyptian Ptolemies formed collections of pictures, as did also the Romans: Verres had a remarkable collection of works of art; and most of the public temples of Rome were depositories of works of painting and sculpture; the Temple of Peace vate galleries. The Vatican at Rome and the British Museum possess the largest and most valuable galleries of sculpture. GALLERY. In Fortification, a covered passage, sometimes constructed under the counterscarp and loopholed. GALLERY. In Mining, a passage leading inwards from the entrance of the mine. Galley (Fr. galère). A low-built vessel propelled by sails and oars, either on a single tier, or on tiers of benches one above the other. The war vessels of antiquity were all galleys. Among the Greeks those chiefly mentioned are the pentecontori, which appear to have had fifty oars disposed in a single tier; and the triremes, vessels with three banks of oars. [TRIREME.] Galleys were likewise employed by the maritime nations of the middle ages in the Mediterranean. Their use in naval war hardly ceased until the end of the seventeenth century; and the Venetian republic, down to the period of its extinction, always maintained a number of war galleys. The Venetian galleys had a single tier only, and all modern galleys followed the same construction. These were formidable vessels in a calm, but unfit for a rough sea. The Venetians had also a large high-pooped sort of galley called galeazza, whence the word galleass and galliott in old English writers. was renowned for its collections. Constanti-pictures, and the Esterhazy and Lichtenstein nople, however, had still greater accumulations collections at Vienna, are perhaps the best prithan Rome. In Europe, the magnificent Museum of the Louvre, though much reduced in 1815 by the restoration of many works acquired by conquest, is still one of the richest in pictures numerically; but it does not possess so many first-rate Italian pictures as the British National Gallery. The gallery founded at Florence by Cosmo II. long enjoyed the first rank, but must be now considered secondary to several European galleries. The treasures of Florence are, however, divided into two collections-that of the Uffizi, and that of the Pitti palace; but both galleries combined do not equal in num. bers the collections of Dresden, of Madrid, or of the Louvre. Numbers, of course, are not the real test of the value of a gallery of works of art; but where all have been formed with more or less indiscrimination, it becomes a fair test. The selected galleries are few, those of the Vatican at Rome, the National Gallery in London, and the Pinacothek at Munich being almost the only examples. If we rank the principal galleries of Europe according to their numbers, the following is their order at this date (1865): 1. Versailles, about 3,300 works, chiefly French battles; 2. Dresden, about 2,200 pictures; 3. Madrid, Real Museo of the Prado, 1,833; 4. The Museum of the Louvre, about 1,800; 5. The Hermitage at St. Petersburg, 1.631; 6. The Gallery of Berlin, 1,250; 7. The Belvidere at Vienna, upwards of 1,550; 8. The Pinacothek of Munich, 1,270; 9. The Gallery of the Uffizi at Florence, upwards of 1,200; 10. The National Gallery, London, about 750; 11. The Gallery of the Musco Borbonico at Naples, about 700; 12. The Academy at Venice, 688; 13. The Academy of Antwerp, 584; 14. The Gallery of Turin, 569; 15. The Brera The punishment of the galleys, i. e. the emof Milan, 503; 16. The Pitti Palace, Florence, ployment of condemned criminals in the toil500; 17. The collection of Brussels, 400; some employment of rowing them, is said to 18. The Gallery of Amsterdam, 386; 19. The have originated under the Greek empire. It Städel Institution at Frankfort, 380; 20. The was used by all the nations bordering on Museum at the Hague, 304; 21. The collection the Mediterranean. In France, under the old of the Academy of Bologna, 280; 22. The jurisprudence, the punishment of the galleys Capitol at Rome, 225; and 23. The celebrated Gallery of the Vatican at Rome, only 37. The National Gallery of London is unfortunately at present divided, from utter insufficiency of space at Trafalgar Square, a part of the national collection being placed at Kensington; if united in one whole and properly displayed, it would appear what it is, not only one of the most select and valuable, but also one of the larger European galleries; and it is yet only in its infancy: it was first opened to the public on May 10, 1824, with 38 pictures, just one more than the Vatican possesses at this day. Edinburgh and Dublin have also now their national galleries, and England possesses also the public collections at Hampton Court and Dulwich, besides the valuable royal gallery at Windsor, and the private galleries of the duke of Sutherland, the marquis of Westminster, the earl of Ellesmere, and others. The Borghese Gallery, a collection of upwards of 500 valuable The name galley is also applied to some of the smarter boats of a ship of war, as the admiral's galley, the captain's galley. The latter is a handsome and very swift boat, propelled by six alternate oars, handled by a picked crew. galley in a ship is the place where cooking is carried on: it is in the forepart of the vessel, on one of the lower decks. The was the severest of secondary penalties. About the end of the reign of Louis XIV., when galleys themselves began to be disused, the galley slaves were employed in hospitals, public works, &c.; and the name of the punishment was changed by the Constituent Assembly (1798) to travaux forcés, compulsory labour, whence the word forçat for a criminal so condemned. Under the code of the empire the punishment was accompanied with forfeiture of property, infamy, and branding. By an alteration of the law effected in 1832, the brand was abolished; and the criminals, who had hitherto been intermingled in the three penal fortresses (Toulon, Rochefort, and Brest), were classified. Toulon was appropriated to those condemned for ten years and under; Brest, to those from ten to twenty; Rochefort, to persons condemned for life. The name bagne, applied in France to prisons in which those condemned to compulsory labour are confined, |