With very frail health, the energy of her will sustained her, while her nervous system experienced excitement which brought on violent neuralgia. Two or three times, falling into a frightful condition in the desert, her courage enabled her to rally. She had with such ardor adopted her brother's plan of research that nothing could separate her from him until it was accomplished.

The year was the only one of her life without tears. It was her sole perfect enjoyment. The fresh sensations to which she abandoned herself were like those of a child. The infinite charm of Syria in autumn and in spring brought from her heart a hymn of pure joy. Tyre, Jerusalem, Carmel, Galilee above all, filled her with delight. To have seen the places over which hang so many sacred recollections seemed to her winning the grand prize of life.

From January to July M. Renan's wife was with him. After her departure the season brought to Henriette the peculiar perils of the Syrian climate, and she had a beginning of the suffering experiences which were not far hence to bring her life to a close. Renan fixed their residence at Ghazir, at a point of lofty outlook upon the sea, and, he says, one of the most beautiful places in the world. The enforced leisure from explorations he devoted to setting down the impressions of Jesus which the reading of the Gospels and of Josephus in Galilee had left upon his mind. He had carried the

Life of Jesus as far as to Christ's last journey to Jerusalem before their stay at Ghazir was over. He was intoxicated with the thoughts which pressed upon him.

Henriette was in his confidence day by day. Every page that he wrote she copied. The book gave her a supreme delight. Every evening, as they walked on the terrace, she gave him her thoughts, many of which he accepted as genuine revelations. Their communion of mind and feeling had never been more complete; her cup of joy was full; these were the happiest moments of her life, and many times she said that the days they were passing were days in Paradise. Yet a touch of sweet sadmess lingered with her; her pains were assuaged, but not wholly suppressed.

With September, it was necessary to leave Ghazir for Beyrout, and prepare for return home. Her mind turned to the little Ary, her nephew, and to her aged mother; to the memory, also, of her father; and never had she seemed more attractive, more noble.

There followed an unexpected delay of eight days, from September 15, on account of a plan to remove two grand sarcophagi at Gebel. For one evening where the time was spent there was a last experience of complete happiness; then the fever attacked her with violence, and a little later him; and while he was lost in delirium she died, and was buried September 24, 1861. HELEN EBBESEN.

IV-THE DAWN OF HISTORY

IV-LATER INDIA AND RECENT INDIA

HE story of India, to which we have already devoted two chapters, calls for additional treatment to show the developments of the Vedic literature, the course pursued by the two great religions, Brahmanism and Buddhism, and the changes of the history-those in particular which were connected with Mahometan conquest in India.

It is of especial importance to thus look over the ground of India down to our own time, because India began to be known at exactly the same time that America began to have a name and a place in the story of human progress. We tell this month as much as we can bring within reasonable space of the story of later India.

In succession to this we shall gather up the main facts in regard to China and other parts of the east and north of Asia,

in order to complete our understanding of that immense early world which has been so long known as the East. After that we shall come to Persia and the story of that section of the map of history which lies between India and Europe. This will bring us back to the region from which we started, in our story of Babylonia, and next in order will be the story of Phoenicia and of Greece, bringing us to the threshold of that great history which includes the whole of Europe and looks from Europe to the New World.

"India"

Studies Under The origins and developments of human progress covered by the word "India," to which we have already given attention in two numbers of SELF CULTURE, are of immense extent; and perhaps upon no subject is the Britannica richer in articles of great value.

The elaborate article, "India" (E. B., Vol. XII. 731-812), giving a full account, with references to many books on the subject, is by the greatest of living authorities, Sir Wm. W. Hunter. Parts of this article of special interest are "Hinduism and the Veda" (pp. 779784); "Buddhist Period,"-sixth century B. C. to eighth century A. D. (pp. 784-786); "Greek, Scythic, and other Non-Aryan Influences" (pp. 786-792); (pp. 786-792); "Mahometan Period" (pp. 792-796); "Early European Settlements" (pp. 796-800); and "British Empire in India" (pp. 800-812). Other matters of interest are found under "Aryan Languages" (E. B., Vol. XVIII. 781–790); "Hindustani" (E. B., Vol. XX. 840850); and "Dravidian, or Tamil" (E.B. XII., 758; Vol. XVIII. 779; Vol. XXIII. 41).

Readers of our last installment of the story may turn to "Brahmanism " (E.B., Vol. I. 201-211); and to "Buddhism" (E. B., Vol. III. 424-438), an elaborate article by T. W. Rhys Davids. What may be called the top subject in the story of India appears under "Himalaya" (E. B., Vol. XI. 821-836). In connection with this should be read "Hindu Kush" (E. B., Vol. XX. 837).

India is emphatically a land of rivers. The article "Punjab" (E. B., Vol. XX. 106), tells how the earliest part occupied by the invading ancestors of the Hindus was a land of the "Five Rivers," or Punjab. These rivers united to form the

great river Indus (E. B., Vol. XII. 847), of which the Sutlej was a branch a thousand miles long. Under "Ganges" (E. B., Vol. X. 68), we have the story of the great sacred river of India, 1,540 miles in length. miles in length. Turning to "Brahmaputra" (E. B., Vol. IV. 211), we have the story of another of India's chief rivers, 1,800 miles in length, of which 1,000 miles form an eastward course on the north side of the Himalaya range, while 800 miles farther conducts its waters to junction with the Ganges.

Another branch of the Ganges, which comes from the Himalayas through the northwest provinces, and flows south of the Ganges until its junction with that sacred river at Allahabad, is the Jumna. The place of entrance of the Jumna into the Ganges is the great sacred gatheringplace for pilgrims seeking to wash away their sins by bathing in India's holiest stream. Where the Ganges enters the head of the Bay of Bengal, it is through diverging streams of immense volume and breadth, of which the Hooghley (E. B., Vol. XII. 147) is the westernmost, bounding the delta of the Ganges on that side, and the Meghna (E. B., Vol. XV. 830) is the easternmost, bounding the delta on that side. It is by the Hooghley that commerce passes up to Calcutta (E. B., Vol. IV. 656), lying about eighty miles from the seaboard.

British and

Native States

The vast continental area of India is curiously broken up into territories, or states, which fall under two heads-the provinces of British India, of which there are twelve, and the native states, or groups of states, comprising Feudatory India. The first are the territories which are under the direct governinent of the Queen of England; or, as the larger designation is, the Queen of England and the Empress of India; and the second, scattered with the first over the whole map, are other territories, or states, where the native government continues to exist, but without any real independence, owing to the fact that English interests have compelled the introduction into these states of advisory residents, who maintain, under the name of "English protection," what is to no small extent English rule. A third class of territories, now very limited in extent, are both native and independent. Nepal, which lies in a lofty valley of the Hima

layas to the north of India, is an example of such a state (E. B., Vol. XVII. 340). Looking on a map, colored to indicate the distinction between British and native protected territory, the eye judges that about two-thirds of the whole, or at least the larger half, falls under the former head. The respective areas are 961,994 square miles under British rule, and 595,313 under native rule with British protection; more than one-half and less than twothirds under rule wholly British. In population British India has immensely more than Feudatory: 221,113,264 in British India in 1891, and in the native states, at the same date, 66,050,479.

British rule, beginning with the island of Ceylon, in the extreme south, and passing up the west side of the Bay of Bengal to Calcutta, extends thence down the east side of the same bay through upper Burmah and lower Burmah, and to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It extends to the far northeast along the course of the Brahmaputra, through Assam; then it covers everything almost of the immense plain and river region, reaching from the head of the Bay of Bengal northwest to the far limits of the Punjab, the original place of settlement of the earliest ancestors of the Hindus. Cashmir, to the northeast of the Punjab, is a large native protected state. East of the Punjab, some small territories fall under the same head. South and southeast of the Punjab the very large territory of Rajpootana is of the native protected class, but with a small British state planted at its center. On the west of Rajpootana, British territory comes down from the Punjab along the Indus to its mouths, and west of the Indus region the large native protected state of Beloochistan is cut into on the extreme northwest by a small British territory around Quetta, on the way to Afghanistan. Down the coast from the mouths of the Indus there are native states around the Gulf of Cutch. Then British territories, broken by native, extend down past Bombay the whole of the west side of India next the Indian Ocean. A very large British region extends across the top of the peninsula, called the Dekkhan, from Bombay to Calcutta, broken in its eastern part by considerable native protected states, and, with the very extensive native protected state of Hyderabad, filling a large place about the center of the peninsula. Another large native

protected state is Mysore, farther down the peninsula toward its western side.

To a remarkable extent the India of Hinduism and of history, of religion and of great memories, is concentrated on the immense section nearest the Himalayas. The traveler from Calcutta north to the Himalayas meets with prospects which are without parallel elsewhere on the globe. There is first the immense plain of upper Bengal, 350 to 400 miles wide, flat as a billiard table-a dead monotony of endless level fields, almost everywhere highly cultivated. This plain extends east and west from the Brahmaputra to the Indus, a distance of more than 1,000 miles. It is bordered on the north by two features more extensive and more striking, perhaps, than any landscape features to be found anywhere in the world. The first of these is a low, flat, heavily timbered belt of forest and jungle, called the Terai. It is continuous from east to west, more than 1,000 miles in length and about ten miles in breadth, forming a dark, deep, well-defined border to the plain. It is a malarious, uninhabited jungle, sheltering every variety of wild life known to the forests of the East, and especially elephants and tigers, snakes and scorpions. Although a wellnigh impenetrable jungle, its trees are for the most part straight as an arrow, shooting up 60 to 100 feet in height, and of a wood most substantial and enduring, more so, even, than that of the famous Burmah teak. The jungle-grass in these forests grows to the height of eight or ten feet.

Beyond this belt of forest, rising as abruptly from it as the belt itself does from the plain, are the foothills of the Himalayas, forming a mountain background of the most impressive character across the whole north of India. Range rises above range, and tier above tier, of the most stupendous chain of mountains in the world, their sides heavily clothed with forest and overtopping each other until their snow-crowned summits seem to touch the blue of heaven.

For observation, at a particular spot, of the marvels of scenery afforded by the Himalayas, Darjeeling is unrivaled. Its situation upon a narrow ridge, 6,000 feet high, has made it the great health-resort for Bengal. Its temperature never exceeds 80° in summer, nor falls below 30° in winter. It is surrounded by extensive

tea-gardens, whose products have more than rivaled those of China. Its scenery is unspeakably grand and endlessly impressive. The highest mountain peaks in the world form its colossal background. The loftiest is Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high. The next in height is Kinchinjanga, 28,156 feet high. Half a dozen more are from 22,000 to 25,000 feet high. The tea industry of Darjeeling is represented in about 200 gardens covering an area of 50,000 acres, which have produced in a single year over 8,000,000 pounds of tea. Other centers of teagrowing are found all along the upper Brahmaputra Valley in the province of Assam.

The account already given* of the developments of the Veda as far as to the Six Systems of Philosophy, left off in the middle of the evolution of Hindu religion and literature. If we concisely recall that account, we may show the whole immense development, as follows:

to have been produced 150 works of this class. They are generally in prose, in the form of dialogues. The earliest may go back to 500 B. C.

IV.

The Six Systems of Philosophy which grew out of the Upanishads, and are sometimes called the Six Sastras, or bodies of teaching; or the Six Demonstrations. They are given in Sutras, or aphorisms, often so brief and obscure as to be unin

telligible without a commentary. Their date is uncertain, but they connect closely with the Upanishads.

Systems of

They are: Philosophy (1.) The Nyaka, or "analysis" of the objects and subjects of knowledge.

(2.) The Vaiseshika, a supplement to the first, particularly engaged with physical inquiries.

(3.) The Sankhya, a synthetical system which attempts to trace the evolution of all things from the eternal germ.

(4.) The Yoga, the aim of which was to teach the means by which the human soul may attain complete union with the Supreme Soul.

(5.) The Nimansa, a study of ritualism based strictly on the Veda.

(6.) The Vedanta, a system of pantheistic idealism making Brahma "the one only essence, without a second," and thereby representing, more than any other system, the universal tendency of Vedic development. Its creed was: "The universe is Brahma; from him it proceeds; in him it breathes; into him it is dissolved. Brahma is that all-knowing, allpowerful CAUSE from which arises the production, continuance and dissolution of the universe. So let every one adore him calmly."

The Song of

One of the most interest

Bhavagat ing and popular works in the whole range of Sanscrit literature, the "Bhagavad-gita," or "Song of Bhavagat," is a sort of poetical appendix to the systems of philosophy and the Upanishads, produced by a profoundly thoughtful Brahman in the first or second century after Christ. It introduces Krishna as the incarnation of the Supreme Being, speaking in dialogue with Arjuna, the chief hero of the Maha-bharata. The utterances of the speakers weave with great

perspicuity and beauty of language a composite of various philosophies, a main design of which is to exalt the obligations of caste, while following either one or another path of philosophy.

All the writings thus far enumerated constituted to Hindu belief a unity such as Christians find in the Bible. It was all Veda-divinely revealed knowledge, conceived as Sruti; that is, revelation heard by the Rishis, or holy sages, and orally transmitted; spoken to the ear; and when at last, after many generations, committed to writing, set down exactly as heard, with no intervention of human authorship. The character ascribed to the oldest Veda, the primitive hymnbook, or Rig-veda, was carried through all the works named under the four heads given above.

But from this dividing-point on through other stages of development, the theory was that the successive productions, although vessels of holy truth, were such in a secondary and subordinate way, by "recollection" of and conformity to the earlier real revelation, and therefore called Smriti. The stages of Smriti, however, carry on those of Sruti, and may be named and numbered as follows, after the four stages of Sruti:

Aids to

མ.

The Six Vedangas, or Vedic Study "Limbs for Supporting the Veda," i. e. helps to aid in reading, understanding, and applying it. These dealt with, (1) ceremonial, giving a directory for the conduct of sacrificial rites; (2) the science of pronunciation, regulating the oral repetition of the Veda; (3) prosody, the metre of each hymn of the Veda, with knowledge of the name of its author, the deity to whom it was addressed, and its right application; (4) exposition (that is, of words) to insure intelligent repetition of sacred texts; (5) grammar, especially the works of Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali, the great grammarians of India, after whom came about one hundred and fifty grammarians and commentators; (6) the astronomical or astrological calendar, designed as a guide to the choice of auspicious days and lucky moments for rites and ceremonies.

The most perfect grammar in existence is that of the great Hindu grammarian,

Panini. Sir Monier Monier-Williams, speaking with the highest authority, says that Panini's grammar is one of the most remarkable literary works that the world has ever seen; that no other country can produce any grammatical system at all comparable to it, either for originality of plan or for analytical subtlety; and that it is, perhaps, the most original of all the productions of the Hindu mind. It contains almost four thousand aphorisms or Sutras, and constitutes a kind of natural history of the Sanscrit language.

Katyayana succeeded Panini, with a work of "supplementary rules and annotations," largely critical of Panini.

Patanjali took up the defense of Panini, in what a high authority calls "one of the most wonderful grammatical works which the genius of any country has ever produced."

Indian

Sciences

In all probability, says one of our best author

ities, astronomical and mathematical science had an independent origin in India. It is at least certain that they were cultivated with some success at a very early epoch, and it is probable that to the Hindus is due the invention of algebra and its application to astronomy and geometry. From them also, the Arabs received not only their first conceptions of algebraic analysis, but also those invaluable numerical symbols and decimal notation now current everywhere in Europe, which have rendered untold service to the progress of arithmetical science. The motions of the sun and moon were carefully observed by the Hindus, and

with such success that their determination of the moon's synodical revolution is a much more correct one than the Greeks ever achieved.

The Hindus recognized certain Upavedas, or sub-vedas, such as (1) "the science of life or medicine; (2) "the science of music; (3) "the science of archery" or military art; and (4) "the science of architecture." Two great medical writers treat in their works of anatomy, physiology, materia medica, pharmacy, surgery, toxicology, omens, and the evil influence of planets and demons in causing diseases. VI.