ETRURIA. them, cut into the form of the scarabæus or beetle. side, the front or convex side being highly They were exclusively intaglios, and of cornelian, polished. These ranged over all the phases of sardonyx, and agate. On these the Etruscan Etruscan art, and are especially and peculiarly artists represent groups from the Greek mythology, Etruscan. None but Etruscan inscriptions have or the heroic cycle, bereft, as they seem to have ever been found upon them. They will, no doubt, been, of heroic legends of their own. They prove eventually of the highest importance, not only are most frequently found at Chiusi and Vulci, by enabling us to follow the gradations of artistic and were worn as charms and amulets. Special development step by step, but by furnishing us mention should be made of the metal specula, with lists of names of gods and persons, and, it or mirrors, with figures scratched upon the concave may be, of objects. Etruscan Mirror from Vulci, with Phuphluns (Bacchus), Semla (Semele), and Apulu (Apollo). most vivid of colours all round-dancing, feasting, loving, hunting. The Etruscans of later times had learned in the school of the Hellenes to dread death less, and to think of the other world as one of continued joyfulness. Of the vases and urns which are found in innu- | shew. Life in its merriest aspects gleams in the merable quantities in Etruscan tombs, we cannot treat here, as they are admitted on all hands to be, with very few exceptions, Greek, both in design and workmanship; we must refer the reader to the special article on VASES; but a few words may be added on the before-mentioned tomb-paintings. They are found chiefly in the cemeteries of Tarquinii and Clusium; and they are all the more important, as they lead us with minute accuracy from the very cradle of the individual, through the various scenes of his entire life, to its close; and this throughout the existence of the nation itself, beginning before the foundation of Rome, and ending in the Empire; while we follow the style in its gradual development from the Egyptian to Græco-Roman perfection. One of the annexed specimens, taken from a tomb at Corneto, represents a death-bed scene; but most of the other paintings, especially at Tarquinii, are of a very different description, as the other specimens 164 The Etruscan language is preserved in more than 3000 inscriptions, and this number will no doubt be doubled by the opening of new sepulchral chambers, with which the soil of ancient Etruria is teeming. These inscriptions are found on sarcophagi, urns, vases, columns, statues, and looking-glasses in bronze. The latter article was a favourite object for the representation of scenes from Greek mythol ogy, and from this source we learn the names of the principal native deities. Tinia was Jupiter; Usil, the sun; Fufluns, Bacchus; Sethlans, Vulcanus; Thurms, Mercurius; Turan, Venus; Thalna, Juno; Thesan, Aurora. Some of the minor female deities are called Lasa, Maris, Mean, Vanth. The inscrip ETRURIA. tions are of two kinds-the archaic and more recent. The former, generally beginning with the syllable MI, are distinguished not merely by a more ancient form of the alphabet, but also by a more refined condition of the language. In the older inscriptions consonants and vowels are evenly balanced. But in the I documents of a later date, short vowels are generally omitted, and, in consequence, combinations of consonants appear which remind us strongly of the cacophonious forms of some of the Slavonic languages. Compare the following specimens: 1. Mi Tesantaia Tarchumenaia. 2. Laris Sesctna Lumscial. With regard to the grammar, the following points may be considered as established. In the singular of nouns, the nominative ends in 8; the genitive, according to the class of declension, in a-s, e-s, i-s, u-s; the dative in si or 8. But these terminations are very often dropped, just as in early Latin. In the Cippus Perusinus, both the largest and best preserved inscription of all now in existence, we find of the proper names Velthina and Afuna the cases: Velthina, Velthinam, Velthinas; Afuna, Afunam, Afanas. The suffix al serves mostly, but not exclusively, for the expression of a metronymic. Thana Seianti Latinial, for example, is Thana Seiantia, the daughter of Latinia. Another very common suffix-asa, esa, isa, usa-designates the matrimonial relation of women. Thana Aulnei Canznasa is Thana Aulneia, the wife of Canzna; Tha Setumnei Pumpunisa is Thana Setumneia, the wife of Pomponius. It is clear that this suffix consists of the genitives in as, es, is, us, with the addition of an a, so that grammatically and logically the wife is defined as part and parcel of her husband. Verbal forms do not occur often, but it is certain that the preterite is formed from the root by the addition of the syllable ce, like tur-ce, the-ce, lupu-ce, sval-ce. The numerals sound rather strange. Mach, thu, zal, huth, ki, sa, are 1-6; but as yet the individual meaning of each of these is unknown. must be said of sesphs, esal, mu or muv, the numerals for 7-9. Decades are expressed by alch(a), e.g., sespalchal, muvalchl, cealchl. Ninety was probably zathrums. The meaning of about 10 or 12 words, The same ETSCH-ETTY. such as clan, son; sech, wife; avil, age; vril, year; Vipia Alsinai turce Versenas Caria. Aulesi Metelis Ve Vesial clensi cen fleres ETSCH. See ADIGE. ETTMÜLLER, ERNST MORITZ LUDWIG, an able writer on German antiquities, was born 5th October 1802, at Gersdorf, near Lobau, in Upper Lusatia, and studied medicine at Leipsic from 1823 to 1826, but subsequently the language and history of his native country. In 1830, having taken his degree of Ph.D. at Jena, he began to deliver lectures there on the German poets of the middle ages; but in 1833 he was called to the Zürich Academy as teacher of the German language and literature. E.'s literary activity has been exhibited chiefly in the editing of the literary remains of the Middle High-German, and older Low-German dialects. To the former belong his Sant Oswaldes Leben (Zürich, 1835); Hade loubes Lieder und Sprüche (Zürich, 1840); Heinrich's Von Meissen des Frouwenlobes Lieder, Leiche, und Sprüche (Quedlinb. 1843); Frawen Helchen Süne (Zürich, 1846); Heinrich's Von Veldecke Eneide (Zürich, 1852). Of poems composed in Low German he published, among others, Theophilus (Quedlinb. 1849); and Wizlawes IV., des Fürsten Von Rügen, Lieder und Sprüche (Quedlinb. 1852). In 1850 appeared, under his editorship, an Anglo-Saxon chrestomathy, entitled Engla and Seaxna Scopas and bôceras; and in the following year his Lexicon Anglo-Saxonicum, which supplied a want long felt in Germany. At an earlier period in his literary career, E. paid great attention to the old Norse literature, and in this department we have from him an edition of the Völuspá, &c. E. has also written poetry, as well as edited it. His Deutsche Stammkönige appeared at Zurich in 1844, his Kaiser Karl d. Gr. und das Fränkische Jungfrauenheer in 1847, and his Karl d. Gr. und der Heilige Goar in 1852. ETTRICK, a pastoral vale in the south of Selkirkshire, watered by the Ettrick river, which rises amid bleak hills in the south-west corner of this county near Ettrick Pen, 2258 feet high, and runs 28 miles north-east, and falls into the Tweed. Its chief affluent is the Yarrow, which runs 25 miles from the west, through one of the loveliest of Scotch vales, and the scene of many a plaintive song. Ettrick Forest, a royal hunting tract, swarming with deer till the time of James V., included Selkirkshire and some tracts to the north. In Ettrick Vale, at Tushielaw, dwelt the celebrated freebooter or king of the Border, Adam Scot, who was summarily executed by James V. The district derives some note from two persons in modern times-Thomas Boston (q. v.), a Scottish divine, who was minister of the parish of Ettrick; and James Hogg, the Scottish poet, who, having been originally a shepherd in this part of the country, became known as 'the Ettrick Shepherd.' ETTY, WILLIAM, R.A. This distinguished artist was born at York, March 10, 1787. His father was a miller and spice-maker. Before he was twelve years of age, he was apprenticed to a printer, and served out his dreary term of seven years, the irksome drudgery of which he himself often afterwards was in the habit of narrating, occasionally soothed by dreams of, on some future day, being an artist. Freed at last, and assisted by some relatives, in 1805, at the age of 18, he entered on the study of art, and, after a year's probation, was admitted as a Royal Academy student. His career is very interesting and instructive. It exhibits one gifted with enthusiasm for art, high resolutions, and great industry and perseverance, for a series of years invariably surpassed by many of his fellowby his companions as a worthy plodding person, students, and, as has been recorded, looked on with no chance of ever becoming a good painter.' Neither prizes nor medals fell to his share as a student; and for several years his pictures were tution Exhibitions. rejected at the Royal Academy and British Insti It was only after six years of hard study that he obtained a place for a picture in the Exhibition of the Royal Academy; and his works only began to attract notice in 1820, when the artist was 33 years of age, and as he himself has said, having exhibited nine years to no purpose.' But the circumstance of E.'s genius being so long unappreciated, did not so much arise from his works evincing no talent, as from his class of subjects, and those technical qualities for which his works are remarkable, not being appreciated at the time; for long before his pictures were saleable, his powers were highly appreciated by his professional brethren. On his return from Italy in 1822, where he had been studying the great Venetian colourists, he was elected an Associate of the Academy. In 1824, his chef-d'œuvre, The Combat-Woman pleading for the Vanquished,' was purchased by an artist, John Martin. In 1828, he was elected Academician by the members of the Royal Academy; while in the its high appreciation of his talents by purchasing same year the Royal Scottish Academy testified the most important of his efforts, the historical work illustrating the history of Judith and Holofernes. Testimonials so high soon had their effect; E.'s pictures came into great request, and brought large prices, and he was enabled amply to repay those who, trusting to his energies, had assisted him when he entered on the contest, in which, after so arduous a struggle, he gained so much honour. ence for York, his native city, and had retired He always cherished a love and rever there some time previous to his death, which took place on November 30, 1849. E. had an exquisite feeling for colour, which he most assiduously cultivated by studying the works of the great Venetian masters, and constantly painting from the life; and though, in his drawing, carelessness and incorrectness may often be observed, it is never vulgar, and often possesses much eleva tion and largeness of style. He generally chose subjects that afforded scope for colour, in which the nude and rich draperies were displayed. He executed nine pictures on a very large scale, viz.: The Combat;' series of three pictures illustrating the delivery of Bethulia by Judith: Benaiah slaying two Lion-like Men of Moab'-these five, which are the best of his large works, were purchased by the Royal Scottish Academy, and are now in the Scottish National Gallery The Syrens,' now in the ETYMOLOGY-EUCALYPTUS. Manchester Institution; and three pictures illustrating the history of Joan of Arc. His smaller works are numerous. Besides his large works above referred to, he sent for exhibition to the Royal Academy and British Institution, between 1811 and 1849 inclusive, no less than 230 pictures, many of them composed of numerous figures, and all remarkable for exquisite colour. The following may be particularly noted: "The Coral-finders; Venus and her youthful Satellites arriving at the Isle of Paphos; Cleopatra's Arrival in Cilicia;' a composition from the eleventh book of Paradise Lost (Bevy of Fair Women'); The Storm;' Sabrina; The Warrior Arming; Youth at the Prow, and Pleasure at the Helm; The Dance,' from Homer's description of Achilles's Shield; 'Britomart redeems Fair Amoret ;' Dance on the Sands, and yet no Footing seen;' 'Amoret Chained.'-Compare E.'s Life by Gilchrist (Bogue, London, 1855). ETYMOLOGY (Gr.) is that part of grammar that treats of the derivation of words. It embraces the consideration of the elements of words, or letters and syllables, the different kinds of words, their forms, and the notions they convey; and lastly, the modes of their formation by derivation and composition. Etymological inquiries have formed a favourite pursuit from the earliest times. In the book of Genesis, numerous indications are given of the derivation of proper names. Homer also attempts etymologies of the names of gods and men, which, however, can only be looked upon as more or less ingenious fancies. The grammarians of Alexandria and Varro among the Romans tried to base their etymologies on something like principle; but the wildest conjectures continued to be indulged in, and the results were little better than guess-work down to a very recent period. As philology extended its sphere, and became acquainted with the languages and grammarians of the East, who far excelled those of the West in this particular, etymology took on a new form. It no longer sought the relations of the words of a single language exclusively within itself, but extended its view to a whole group, e. g., the Teutonic, or wider still, to a whole family, as the Indo-European, or Aryan (q. v.), and became a new science under the name of Comparative Grammar. See PHILOLOGY. Etymologicum Magnum is the name of a Greek lexicon, the oldest of the kind, professing to give the roots of the words. It appears to belong to the 10th c.; the author's name is unknown. The etymologies are mere guesses, sometimes right, often wildly absurd; but the book is valuable, as containing many traditions and notices of the meanings of old and unusual words. There is an edition by Schäfer (Leip. 1816); one by Sturz, called EtymoLogicum Gudianum (Leip. 1818); and another by Gaisford (Oxf. 1849). EU, a tolerably well-built town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, in Normandy, situated near the mouth of the Bresle, 93 miles north-north-west of Paris. It is remarkable for its fine Gothic church, and for the Château d'Eu, a low building of red brick, with high tent-shaped roofs of slate. E manufactures sail-cloth, ropes, soap, lace, and silk. Pop. (1872) 3673. In the 11th and 12th centuries, E. was in the possession of the counts of the same name, a collateral branch of the Norman royal family. After various vicissitudes, it was purchased by Mademoiselle de Montpensier in 1675, whose fanciful taste has perpetuated itself in the architecture and decoration of the château. At a later period, it came into the possession of the Duke of Maine, from whom it passed to the Duke of Penthièvre, the maternal grandfather of Louis Philippe, who succeeded to it in 1821. Louis Philippe expended large sums on the embellishment of the château, and especially on its magnificent park and the unique portrait-gallery. It has besides acquired a new historical association through the visits of the queen of England in 1843 and 1845. The eldest son of the Duke of Nemours (born 29th April 1842) received from his royal grandfather the title of Count d'Eu. Compare Vatout, Le Château d'Eu, Notices Historiques (5 vols., Paris, 1836), his Résidences Royales (Paris, 1839). It is Negroponte), the largest island in the Ægean Sea, EUBE'A (ancient, Euboia; Turkish, Egripo; Ital. forms a portion of the present kingdom of Greece. Until recently, it was called Negropont. bounded on the N. by the Trikeri Channel, and on the W. by those of Talanta and Egripo. It extends in a direction parallel to the mainland; is 105 English statute miles long, and 30 miles in extreme breadth, although in one part its breadth is scarcely four miles. At the narrowest part, it is connected with the mainland by a bridge. The island is intersected by a chain of mountains, running north-west and south-east, and attaining in the centre, in the range of Mount Delphi, an elevation of about 4500 feet. Copper and other metals are obtained in the island, which also contains numerous hot springs. The pastures are excellent, and the declivities of the mountains covered with forests of fir-trees. The climate is salubrious, the valleys well watered and very fertile, but little cultivated. The chief products are cotton, oil, wine, wheat, fruit, and honey. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the breeding of cattle; they export wool, hides, and cheese, as well as oil and grain. The chief towns are Chalcis (q. v.) on the north, and Carystos on the south coast, the latter having a population of 3000. E. was peopled in the early historic times chiefly by Ionic Greeks, and afterwards by colonists from Athens, who formed a number of independent cities or states. These were at first monarchical in their constitution, but at a later period democratic. They soon rose to power and prosperity. After the Persian wars, however, E. was subjugated by the Athenians, under whose rule it continued till they, in their turn, were subdued by Philip of Macedon. By the Romans, it was finally united with the province of Achaia under Vespasian. In 1204, it came into the possession of the Venetians, and received the name of Negroponte. In the year 1470, the island was taken by the Turks, in whose hands it remained till 1821, when the inhabitants rose to vindicate their independence at the call of the beautiful Modena Maurogenia. It now forms a portion of the modern kingdom of Greece, and has a population of 72,368. EUCALYPTUS, a genus of trees of the natural order Myrtacea, sub-order Leptospermeæ, containing a large number of species, mostly natives of Australia, and which, along with trees of nearly allied genera, form one of the most characteristic features of the vegetation of that part of the world. The genus occurs also, although much more sparingly, in the Malayan Archipelago. The trees of this genus have entire and leathery leaves, in which a notable quantity of a volatile aromatic oil is usually present. The leaves, instead of having one of their surfaces towards the sky, and the other towards the earth, are often placed with their edges in these directions, so that each side is equally exposed to the light. Many of the species abound in resinous secretions, and are therefore called GUM-TREES in Australia. Some of them attain a great size; some are found with trunks from eight to sixteen feet in diameter; a plank 148 feet in length was exhibited at the EUCHARIST-EUDOCIA. those of David Gregory (Oxf. 1703) and Peyrard (3 vols., Par. 1814-1818). The oldest Greek edition of the Elements appeared at Basel, 1533; the best is that of August (2 vols., Berlin, 1826). Of English editions of E.'s Elements, those of Simpson and Playfair are considered the best. There is a full account of everything connected with E. and his works in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Great Exhibition of 1851. They are of very rapid growth; and their timber, when green, is soft, so that they are easily felled, split, or sawn up; but when dry, it becomes very hard. It is used for a great variety of purposes, amongst which may be mentioned ship-building. The bark of many of the species abounds in tannin, and has become to some extent an article of commerce. Some kinds of it are said to be twice as strong as oak-bark. The bark of some is remarkable for its hardness; whilst EUCLID, of Megara, a Greek philosopher, has some throw off their outer bark in longitudinal often been confounded with the mathematician of strips or ribbons, which, hanging down from their the same name. He was one of the earliest disciples stems and branches, have a very singular appear of Socrates. Although Megara lay at a considerable ance.-Among the resinous secretions of this genus distance from Athens, and all Megarians were foris the substance called BOTANY BAY KINO, which is bidden to enter the Athenian territories under pain used in medicine as a substitute for Kino (q. v.). It of death, E. came into the city in the evening in is the produce of E. resinifera, a species with ovato- female disguise, to enjoy the instruction of Socrates. lanceolate leaves, known in Australia as the RED After the death of his master, he established a school GUM TREE and IRON BARK TREE, a very lofty tree, of his own, which received the name of the Megaric attaining a height of 150-200 feet. When the School. His death took place about 424 B.C. The bark is wounded, a red juice flows very freely, and basis of his system was the Eleatic dogma of a one, hardens in the air into masses of irregular form, only, universal, substance or existence. Blending inodorous, transparent, almost black when large, but with this the Socratic idea of the predominance of of a beautiful ruby red in small and thin fragments. the moral element, E. held this one real existence to Botany Bay Kino is said to consist chiefly of a be the good, though it receives various names under peculiar principle called Eucalyptin, analogous to its special manifestations. tannin. About sixty gallons of juice may sometimes be obtained from a single tree, or, in the course of a year, as much as five hundred pounds of kino.-E. robusta, STRINGY BARK TREE, also a lofty tree, yields a most beautiful red gum, which is found filling large cavities in its stem, between the concentric circles of wood.-E. mannifera yields, from its leaves, an exudation resembling manna, less nauseous, and of similar medicinal properties. It contains a saccharine substance, différent from mannite, from glucose, and from all previously known kinds of sugar. Another similar exudation, from the leaves of E. dumosa, is sometimes seen spread over large districts like snow, and used by the natives as food.-The Tasmanian Blue Gum Tree, which is one of the Eucalypti, has recently acquired great reputation for its effects in drying marshy soils, and in preventing malarious diseases. It is extremely rapid in its growth, which may account for its drying powers; and this, in its turn, may partly account for its salubrious effects; although its camphor-like odour may also have to do with it. It has been tried with decidedly beneficial effects in the Cape of Good Hope, Algeria, Mexico, and elsewhere. Unfortunately, it does not bear any great severity of winter. EUCHARIST. See LORD'S SUPPER. EUCHLO'RINE is a very explosive green coloured gas, possessing bleaching properties, and is prepared by heating gently a mixture of 2 parts hydrochloric acid, 2 of water, and 1 of chlorate of potash. It explodes when merely touched with a hot wire, and is most likely composed of a mixture of chlorine and chlorochloric acid (2C10,,C10,). EU'CLID, sometimes called the father of mathematics, was born at Alexandria, about 300 B. C. We know little more of his history than that he belonged to the Platonic school of philosophy, and taught mathematics in the famous school of Alexandria, during the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Though he did not create the science of mathematics, as is sometimes represented, he made prodigious advances, especially by his rigorous method and arrangement. In this respect he has perhaps never been excelled, and his Elements of Geometry continue to the present day to hold their place as a text-book of that science. Besides the Elements, there are extant treatises on music, optics, data, &c., ascribed to E., the authenticity of some of which is doubtful. The best editions of the whole reputed works of E. are EUDIO METER (Gr. eudios, good, and metron, measurer) is an instrument originally introduced as a measurer of the goodness of air in any locality, but which is now employed generally in the analysis of gases for the determination of the nature and proportions of the constituents of any gaseous mixture. The instrument is now made of glass in the form of a tube, which is hermetically sealed at one end, and open at the other. The tube may be straight, or bent in the shape of the letter U. In either case, the tube is graduated or marked off in equalsized divisions from the closed end onwards, so as to admit of the volume of gas placed within being accurately measured; and two platinum wires are inserted through the glass near the shut end of the other. These wires are intended for the conveyance tube, and closely approach, but do not touch, each of electric sparks through any mixture of gases, so as to cause the combustion of certain of them. For the modes of manipulating with the eudiometer, see GAS, ANALYSIS OF. EUDO CIA, the name of several Byzantine prin cesses, of whom the most important is the wife of the Emperor Theodosius II. She was the daughter of the sophist Leontius or Leon, and was educated by her father, who instructed her in the literature of Greece and Rome, in rhetoric, geometry, arith metic, and astronomy. Her accomplishments and her singular beauty were reckoned by Leontius a sufficient fortune, for at his death he left all his property to her two brothers. E. appealed to the emperor at Constantinople. Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius, was interested in the maiden, and thought she would make a suitable wife for the emperor. But as E. (or, more properly, Athenais, for this was her name until her baptism) had been brought up a pagan, it was necessary first to convert her. This was easily accomplished. E. was married to the emperor in 421 A.D. For many years, however, Pulcheria ruled in the imperial household and councils, E., according to Nicephorus, submitting to her as mother and Augusta; but in 447, a quarrel broke out between them in regard to the Eutychian heresy, of which E. had become a supporter. At first, E. was triumphant, and Pulcheria was banished; but in a short time the emperor was reconciled to his sister, and treated E. so sharply that she retired to Jerusalem, where she died 460– 461 A. D. Her latter days were spent in works of |