FRUIT-FRUIT-GARDEN.

association with volatile oils that are also present, to keep so well as those gathered by the hand

communicate to the more valued wines their special bouquet.

The ratio of the acid to the sugar in the must (the expressed juice before the commencement of fermentation) affords the best evidence of the season. Thus, in the very bad wine-year of 1847, the ratio was 1: 12; in the better wine-year of 1854, it was 1 16; while in the good wine-year of 1848 it was 1: 24, the same kind of grape being experimented upon in all the cases.

Apricots and peaches consist almost entirely of juice, their solid constituents, after the removal of the stone, being only 1 or 2 per cent. These fruits are esteemed both for their juicy and tender flesh, and for their powerful but delicate aroma.

In apples and pears, we have an increased quantity of cellulose and pectine, and consequently a relative preponderance of the insoluble constituents. The cellulose contributes to the firmness or hardness of these fruits, while it is to the pectine that they owe their property of gelatinising when boiled. The well-marked differences of taste, &c., presented by different kinds of apples and pears, are due to the very varying relations that occur between the acid, the sugar, and the pectine, to the greater or less abundance of cellulose, and to the varying nature of the aroma. For equal quantities of sugar, pears contain less acid than apples. In the different kinds of dessert apples, the ratio of the sugar to the acid ranges between 12 to 1 and 22 to 1, while in cooking-apples it averages not more than 8 to 1.

The chemical changes which take place in the fruit during the process of ripening are described in the article PHYSIOLOGY, VEGETABLE.

Keeping of Fruit.-Many of the finest fruits undergo very speedy decomposition; and on this account, some of those most highly esteemed in the countries which produce them, have never become articles of commerce, and are only to be enjoyedexcept in the state of jam or preserves-during the season of their ripening. Decomposition takes place most rapidly when fruits are exposed to the air, and particularly to stagnant air, when there is any dampness about them, and when they are subjected to considerable or frequent changes of temperature. Grapes are imported into Britain from the south of Europe, packed in saw-dust. Unripe gooseberries are kept for making tarts in winter, in bottles or jars, filled up with perfectly dry sand, saw-dust, bran, or the like, closely corked and sealed, after a gentle heat has been applied to expel moisture as much as possible, and placed in a moderate and equable temperature, which is sometimes accomplished by burying them to some depth in the earth. A similar method may be employed with many other fruits. Pears, the finest kinds of which are very apt to rot almost immediately after they reach their perfect maturity, may be kept for months in glazed earthen-ware jars very closely covered, and placed in a cool airy situation, out of the reach of frost. The layers of fruit are separated by the substance used for filling up the interstices, and the pears of the same layer are likewise kept apart, that rottenness in one may not infect the rest, which, with every kind of fruit, is very apt to take place. Another method is to keep them in drawers, the temperature being carefully regulated. Large gardens are often provided with a fruit-room, in which shelves and drawers are allotted to the different kinds of fruit. A moderate and equable temperature, dryness, and careful ventilation, are the principal requisites of the fruit-room. Fruit intended for keeping should be carefully gathered, when almost quite ripe, and all bruising avoided. Pears or apples shaken from the tree cannot be expected

all the succulent fruits produced in Britain, the apple keeps best, and is therefore most generaly used. Fruit intended for keeping is sometin s sweated before being placed in the jars or shelves, being laid in heaps for a short time-varying accor ing to the kind of fruit, and extending, in the case of winter-apples to a fortnight or more-that som of the juice may exude through the skin; but the propriety of this practice is doubtful. Some kir of winter pears and apples can scarcely be said to be ripened till after they are placed in the frat room; and medlars are not fit for use till they have reached a state of incipient decay.

FRUIT-GARDEN. Some kinds of fruits have been cultivated from the earliest historic ages. I say nothing of the garden of Eden, and the vine yard which Noah planted after the Deluge, we fir! in the books of Moses evidence that the cultivato of fruits was much practised in Egypt before the time of the exode of the Israelites; and amongst the Babylonians, the Persians, the Chinese, and th inhabitants of India, it can in like manner be traced back to the most remote antiquity. The Greeks and Romans probably derived their knowledge et the art, as well as many of their finest varieties of fruit-trees, from the East; Charlemagne requred attention to be paid to it throughout his wi dominions, and contributed much to its extensios in regions of Europe previously too rude for t prevalence; and during the middle ages it wa most successfully prosecuted by the monks in tix gardens of the monasteries.

The grape, the fig, the melon, and the powe granate, are among the first fruits of which we ta any particular notice in history. The cultivation of the apple, the pear, and some others, is also unques tionably of very great antiquity. Interesting parti culars concerning the most important kinds of fruit. will be found under their respective heads.

The cultivation of fruits is generally carried on in connection with that of culinary vegetables, flowers and other objects of the gardener's care; and the fruit-garden is almost necessarily more or less combined with the kitchen-garden, &c. The ter fruit-garden is generally used when the grou between fruit-trees is regularly tilled and made to produce other garden crops; the term Orchar (q. v.), when it is laid down in grass, or cultivated | for grain and other agricultural crops. The lat method is practicable only with some, and these the more hardy kinds of fruit-trees.

Fruit-trees, in the open air, are cultivated either as wall-trees, espalier-trees, or standards. The walls intended for fruit-trees are either of brick or stone, the former, however, being preferable, and are generally from ten to fourteen feet high. Wa serve not only for protection from winds, but for the radiation of heat, and thus counterbalance in part the disadvantages of cold climates. The tran ing of wall-trees will be noticed in a separate artha See WALL-TREES. Espaliers (q. v.) serve in a inferior degree the purposes of walls. Walls are sometimes flued and artificially heated, by means early ripening is secured, and varieties et fruit are produced which could not otherwise in the same locality be grown in the open air. The pro duction of fruits belonging to warm climates is also effected in the colder parts of the world by means of Hothouses (q. v.), in which the trees are generalit trained either as wall-trees or on frames stretched almost horizontally, both methods being commonly adopted in the same hothouse. Standard which receive no other training than mere praming or the occasional tying of a principal branch, te guide it in a particular direction,

are further

1

FRUIT-PIGEON-FRUITS.

distinguished according to the height of their stem before branching, as full standards, with stems six or seven feet high, more common in orchards where cattle are sometimes allowed to graze, than in gardens; half-standards, with stems three to five feet high; and dwarf standards, which, being otherwise also of small dimensions, and often bearing very fine fruit, and in great abundance, are par[ticularly suitable for many situations, and for small gardens. The height of the stem is determined in the nursery, before grafting; but much depends upon the kind of tree; and all the varieties of some kinds may be permanently dwarfed by grafting on particular kinds of stock, as apple-trees by grafting on paradise stocks. Other means of still further dwarfing are practised as to trees intended for Forcing (q. v.), and to a remarkable extent by the Chinese in the cultivation of the Dwarfed Trees (q. v.), for which they are famous.

climates, some of the most valuable fruits are produced by herbaceous plants, as the melon, cucumber, pumpkin, and all the kinds of gourds, the pineapple, and, notwithstanding the tree-like size of the plants, the plantain and banana.

FRUIT-PIGEON (Carpophaga), a genus of Columbida (q. v.), having the bill considerably depressed at the base, compressed and moderately arched at the tip, the membrane in which the nostrils are pierced little prominent or swollen, the forehead low, and the feathers advancing on the soft part of the bill, the wings moderately long, the feet,

The soil of the fruit-garden requires particular attention. Different kinds of fruit-trees differ, indeed, as to the soils to which they are specially adapted, or in which they will succeed; but a rich and rather open soil is the most generally suitable. This soil must be of the depth of at least two feet, and it is better that it should be three or more; it must extend to a distance of at least eight or twelve feet from the trees, if they are not very dwarf. If the roots reach a bad subsoil, such as gravel or till, canker is almost sure to ensue. The care bestowed on the preparation of the soil for fruit-trees by the monks of the middle ages has seldom been equalled, and never exceeded in modern times. The whole sol of large gardens appears in some instances to have been artificially prepared; and the descent of the roots to an unfavourable subsoil was prevented by pavements. It is, of course, absolutely requisite that a fruit-garden be thoroughly drained. Manur- and particularly the hinder claw, large, and formed ing is sometimes unavoidable, but is apt, when for grasping. During the breeding-season, a curious injudiciously applied, to cause diseases in the trees; gristly knob grows on the base of the upper manand when the soil requires to be enriched, road-dible of some of the species, and soon after disscrapings, the scourings of ditches, rotten leaves, &c., appears. They are birds of splendid plumage, are to be preferred. The use of guano and other artificial manures requires great caution. Where full crops of culinary vegetables are taken from the soil around the trees, there is less danger of injury from manures, although the practice, however necessary in many cases, is not the best either for the quality of the vegetables or the fruit.

Fruit Pigeon (Carpophaga Oceanica).

natives of the forests of India, the Indian Archipelago, the warmer parts of Australia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Their food consists of fruits.

FRUITS, in Law. The fruits of the soil, in their legal aspects, fall under various categories, and follow different destinations according to their nature, and The fruit-trees cultivated in Britain are almost the situation in which they are placed. If not yet always grafted or budded on seedling stocks either separated from the soil which produced them, they of the same or a nearly allied species. See GRAFT- are said to be pendentes, and as parts of the soil ING. The raising and grafting of these stocks are (partes soli), pass to the heir on the death of the generally carried on in the Nursery (q. v.). Some ancestor, or are carried by a sale to the purchaser. kinds of trees are propagated by layers or by suckers, To this, however, there is an exception in the case and some by cuttings, the common method of propa- of industrial fruits (fructus industriales), such as gating the varieties of gooseberries and currants. growing corn, and all those other fruits which In warmer climates, these methods of propagation require yearly seed and industry. These are called are more extensively used, and ungrafted seedlings in England emblements, and though still in union are also more frequently allowed to become trees with the soil, follow nevertheless, in several partiand to produce fruit. Concerning the transplanting culars, the nature of personal, as distinguished from of young fruit-trees, see TRANSPLANTING.-PRUNING real estate. Stephen's Com. ii. 227. The rule is will also be noticed in a separate article. The the same in Scotland, but it is strictly construed, methods of preserving the blossom from spring and does not include trees or planting, natural grass, frosts being almost exclusively applicable to walltrees, will be noticed under that head. Besides fruit-trees, properly so called, some shrubs or bushes are much cultivated in Britain for the trait which they produce, particularly the gooseberry, the red and white currant, and the black currant. Some of the fruits of tropical countries are in like manner produced by shrubs. The raspberry is only half-shrubby, the strawberry completely herbaceous; and these are the only half shrubby or herbaceous plants much cultivated in the open air in Britain for their fruit. But in warmer

or even fruit not yet plucked from the tree. To this again, however, there is an exception in horticultural subjects, in favour of nursery-trees and plants, not of larger or longer growth than such as are usually dealt in by nurserymen. See FIXTURES. Fruits that are separated from the soil (fructus percepti), on the other hand, are the property of the possessor who separated them in good faith; of the tenant or former proprietor in the case of a sale; and of the personal representatives of the deceased in case of death, and not of the heir of his real or heritable estate.

FRUIT-TRADE-FRY.

FRY, ELIZABETH, an eminent female phila present the following quantities, in round numbers, thropist and preacher of the Society of Fr in one average year-Almonds, 34,744 cwts.; apples, third daughter of John Gurney, Esq. of Ear 385,046 bushels; figs, 46,040 cwts.; grapes, 19,557 Hall, near Norwich, was born May 21, 1750. He bushels; chestnuts, 57,048 bushels; cocoa-nuts, active and untiring exertions in the cause of suffr 2,484,423 no.; hazel-nuts, 220,386 bushels; walnuts, ing humanity, unparalleled in one of her own 68,363 bushels; pears, 61,055 bushels; plums acquired for her in her lifetime the name of the (French), 8702 cwts.; prunes, 16,030 cwts.; tama- female Howard.' When not more than eighteen years rinds, 634,697 lbs. of age, she established a school for eighty por

1

FRYING-FUAD-MEHMED.

children in her father's house, with his entire sanction. and into Dutch by Radijs (Utrecht, 1844); and

In 1800, at the age of twenty, she married Joseph Fry, Esq., of Upton, Essex, then engaged in business in London, to whom she had a family of eight children. In the year 1813, the deplorable condition of the female prisoners in Newgate attracted her attention, and she resolved upon visiting them. Alone and unprotected, she entered the part of the prison where 160 of the most disorderly were immured, and addressed them with a dignity, power, and gentleness which at once fixed their attention. She then read and expounded a portion of Scripture, many of those unhappy beings having on that occasion heard the word of God for the first time. It was not, however, till about Christmas 1816 that she commenced her systematic visits to Newgate, being then particularly induced thereto by the FUAD-MEHMED, Pasha, a Turkish statesreports of the gentlemen who, in 1815, originated man and litterateur, was born at Constantinople in the 'Society for the Improvement of Prison Disci- 1814. He was the son of the celebrated poet, IzzetFine.' She instituted a school within the prison Effendi-Kitchegizadé, better known under the name walls, provided work for the females, and the of Izzet-Mollah, and nephew of Leïla Khatun, one means of Christian instruction, and established a of the very few Turkish poetesses. Having received committee of ladies for the reformation of female an education more literary than that of the majority prisoners. The almost immediate result was order, of young men destined for public affairs in Turkey, Bobriety, and neatness, in the place of the riot, licen- he began to make himself known as an author, tousness, idleness, and filth, which had previously when the exile of his father, who had fallen into 1 prevailed. In 1818, her exertions were directed disgrace with the Sultan Mahmud, and the confisto making provision for the benefit of female con- cation of the paternal property, compelled him to ricts sentenced to transportation. For the relief of choose a profession. He betook himself to medicine, females in foreign prisons, she made frequent conti- and studied at Galata-Sérai from 1828 to 1832. Lental journeys. She also interested herself in the In 1834 he was appointed Admiralty physician, and abolition of slavery, the advancement of education, accompanied the grand admiral in his expedition and the distribution of Bibles and tracts. Her against Tripoli ; but on his return to Constantinople, labours for the improvement of British seamen, by he abruptly forsook medicine, and entered the more furnishing the ships of the Coast Guard and the unquiet arena of politics. For several years, he Royal Navy with libraries of religious and instruc-employed himself in the study of diplomacy, history, tive books, received the sanction and assistance of government. To the poor and helpless, her charities were unbounded. As a preacher among her own sect, she was held in high estimation; and she diten engaged in gospel missions, not only throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, but to various countries on the continent. She died at Ramsgate, October 12, 1845, aged sixty-five. Soon after her death, a public meeting was held in London, the ard mayor in the chair, for establishing, as the best monument to her memory, The Elizabeth Fry Refuge, for affording temporary food and shelter to destitute females, on their discharge from metropolitan prisons. Compare Memoirs of the Life of Elisabeth Fry, 2 vols. (Lond. 1847), published by her daughters.

that devoted to the history of Gustavus Vasa into German by Ekendahl (1831). F.'s Characteristics of the Period from 1592 to 1600 in Sweden obtained a prize offered by the Swedish Academy. Another work, entitled Om Aristokrat-fördömandet i Svenska Historien (4 vols. Upsala, 1845-1850), in which he endeavours to clear the Swedish aristocracy from the accusations urged against them by Geijer and others, involved him in a keen controversy with the democratic liberal party in Sweden. F. has also addicted himself to poetry and music; and an opera of his, called Wermland's Flickan (or The Lass of Wermland'), has proved very attractive to his countrymen, on account of its fine national melodies.

FRYING. See FOOD AND DRINK.

modern languages, the rights of nations, and political economy. In 1840, he became first secretary to the Turkish embassy at London, where his skill and sagacity first made themselves conspicuous. In 1843 he was named second dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and shortly after was chosen to proceed to Spain to felicitate the queen of that country on her accession to the throne. F. was very popular at the court of Madrid. It was almost impossible to believe him to be a Turk. He spoke French marvellously well, made bon-mots like Talleyrand, and shewed himself as gallant as an Abencerrage. Curiously enough, although a Mohammedan, he obtained, while in Spain, among other honours, the Grand Cord of Isabella the Catholic. Here also he composed a poem on the Alhambra, which Turkish critics praise highly for its novel and interesting reflections. On his return to ConFRYXELL, ANDERS, a Swedish historian, was stantinople, he was appointed to discharge the born in 1795 at Hesselskog, in Dalsland; studied at functions of grand interpreter to the Porte, which Upsala; took priest's orders in 1820; and in 1828, brought him into contact with the Duke of Montbecame rector of St Mary's School, Stockholm. F. pensier, who arrived at Constantinople in 1845, and first acquired a reputation by his Berättelser ur who, on his return to France, invested him with Stenska Historien (Narratives from Swedish History, the cross of Commander of the Legion of Honour. vols. i-xviii., Stockh. 1832-1852). These narra- In 1850 he went on a mission to St Petersburg, tives, strung together on something of the same and in 1853 on another to Egypt. On his return plan as Sir Walter Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, from the first of these, he became minister of are marked not only by their patriotic sentiment, foreign affairs under the grand viziership of Aali but by their fresh and natural conception, their Pasha (August 1852). On the question of the richness of biographic detail, their naive and viva-Holy Places, F., by his attitude, and by a brochure cious execution, and soon obtained a wide popularity very hostile to the pretensions of Russia, entitled in Sweden. The first volumes of this truly national La Vérité sur la Question des Lieux Saints, gave work have been repeatedly published, and have great dissatisfaction to the czar. In 1854, F. went been translated into almost all European languages; to Epirus along with Omar Pasha, acting sometimes for example, into English by Schoultz (2 vols., as a diplomatist and sometimes as a general. In Lond. 1844), and into German by Homberg (2 vols., the following year he received the title of Pasha, Stockh. 1843). The part devoted to the history of and was again appointed minister of foreign affairs. Gustavus Adolphus has also been translated into (From 1861 to 1866 he held the office of Grand German by Homberg (2 vols., Leip. 1842-1843), Vizier. He died 1869.) To him especially it is said into French by Mlle. N. du Puget (Paris, 1839), Turkey owes the hatti-sherif of 1856, ordering the