GERMAN TINDER-GERMANIA. it was first made at Hildburghausen, in Germany, where it was made by smelting the ores of the metals above-mentioned, and a small proportion of iron ore also; this last, however, is very rarely used now, although it adds to the silvery whiteness of the alloy, but it renders it more brittle. GERMAN TINDER. See AMADOU. GERMA'NDER (Teucrium), a genus of plants of the natural order Labiata, having the calyx tubular, 5-toothed and sometimes 2-lipped; the Germander, or Wood Sage (Teucrium Scorodonia): a, corolla; b, calyx, with pistil. corolla with the upper lip very short and bipartite, the lower lip spreading and trifid; the stamens much exserted. The species are numerous, and very widely distributed. A few are natives of Britain. The COMMON G. or WALL G. (T. chamadrys), often found on ruined walls, has probably been introduced from the south of Europe. It is a small, almost shrubby, perennial; with wedgeshaped ovate inciso-serrate leaves, and whorls of about three large reddish purple flowers. It is bitter, somewhat aromatic, and was formerly much used in medicine, particularly in cases of gout. It was a principal ingredient in a once famous gout medicine called Portland powder. Similar medicinal virtues were ascribed to T. Botrys, a small annual species common on dry hills in Germany; with aromatic fragrance and yellow flowers. WooD G. or WOOD SAGE (T. scorodonia) is a very common British plant, growing in dry bushy or rocky places, with oblong-ovate very much wrinkled leaves, and one-sided racemes of yellowish-white flowers. It is very bitter and slightly aromatic. It is used in Jersey instead of hops.-WATER G. (T. scordium), a rare British species, growing in wet meadows, has a smell resembling that of garlic. It had once a great reputation in medicine.-CAT THYME (T. Marum), a native of the south of Europe, abounds in a pungent volatile oil, has a camphor-like smell, and-like catmint and valerian root-has great attractiveness for cats. It is often used as a sternutatory; and its powder snuffed into the nose has proved very beneficial in cases of polypus.-A species found in Cochin-China (T. thea) is used there in infusion as tea. GERMA'NIA was the general name under which the Romans designated not only great part of modern Germany, but also a portion of Belgium and the north and north-eastern districts of Gaul, the two last being more especially characterised as 'Germania Prima' and 'Secunda,' while Germany proper was also called 'Germania Magna,' 'Ger mania Trans-Rhenana,' or 'Germania Barbara' The boundaries of the region comprehended under these designations were on the west, the Rhine and Celtic Gaul; on the east, the Vistula and the Carpathian Mountains; on the south, the Danube; and on the north, the sea, which was divided by the Cimbrian Chersonesus (Jutland) into the German and the Suevic (Baltic) seas. The first occurrence in connection with the history of the people of G. with which we are acquainted, was the appearance of warlike tribes of Cimbri and Teutones in the present Steiermark or Stiria, where they defeated the Roman consul Papirius, in the year 113 B. C. Eleven years later, they again came into collision with the Roman arms, but the result was their signal defeat by Marius. The names Germani and Germania do not seem to have been appellations in use among the people themselves; and it is probable that the Romans borrowed them from the Gauls or Celts, in whose language the word 'gairm,' a loud cry (like the Homeric boèn agathos, 'good at the war-shout'), may possibly have served to designate this people, whose habit it was to accompany their attack on an enemy by loud cries. The Tungri were the first German people that crossed the Rhine, but other tribes soon followed; and when Julius Cæsar opened his Gallic campaigns (58 B. C.), he found the Germanic nations of the Triboci, Nemetes, and Vangiones in possession of the districts lying between the left bank of the Rhine and the Vosges, while he even encountered a rival pretender to the supremacy of Gaul in the person of Ariovistus, the leader of the Suevic tribe of the Marcomanni. All these tribes were, however, finally reduced to subjection with the rest of Gaul, while the Tencteri and Usipetes, who had invaded Belgium, were driven, together with the Sicambri, across the Rhine to their former settlements by the victorious general, who for the first time (55 B. C.) led a Roman army into Trans-Rhenic Germany. The quiet which Caesar's victories had secured in the Rhenish districts was again so seriously disturbed by the Usipetes and several of the neighbouring tribes in the year 16 B.C., that Augustus, who had hastened to Gaul on the outbreak of disturbances, saw that stringent measures must be adopted to keep the Germans in check, and sent Drusus at the head of eight legions into Germany. The first step of the Roman general was to dig a canal (fossa Drusiana') from the Rhine to the Yssel, by which the Roman galleys could sail from the heart of the continent to the ocean; and so successful were his measures, that in the course of four campaigns he had carried the Roman arms as far as the Albis (Elbe), subdued the Frisii, Batavi, and Chauci in the north, and defeated the Catti of the Moenus (Maine) dis tricts. Drusus, who died 9 B.C., began the series of forts, bridges, and roads which were completed and extended under succeeding commanders. The attempt made by Varus, under the direction of Augustus, to introduce the Roman provincial forms GERMANIA. of administration into Germany, brought, however, men delighted in active exercises and the perils of a sudden check to the advance and consolidation war, and the women, whose chastity was without of Roman power; for the tribes of Central Ger- reproach, were held in high esteem. Each master of many, indignant at this attempted subversion of a family had absolute power over those of his their national institutions, ranged themselves under household. Their habitations were generally sepathe leadership of Arminius, a chief of the Cherusci, rate, and surrounded by their several stalls and who organised a general revolt. The result of garners; for although there were villages whose this movement was the destruction at the Saltus inhabitants made common use of the fields and Teutobergiensis of the three legions commanded woods surrounding them, the Germans seem to by Varus, and the subsequent loss of all the have preferred isolated and detached dwellings to Roman possessions between the Weser and the aggregate settlements. Towns and cities they long Rhine. The news of this disastrous event threw regarded with aversion, as inimical to personal the city of Rome into consternation. Germanicus, freedom. In regard to their political organisation, who was sent forth in 14 A. D. to restore Roman it would appear that several villages formed a supremacy, would probably have again wholly sub-hundred,' several hundreds one 'gau,' and several jugated the Germanic tribes had he not been gaus one tribe. In each tribe the people were recalled by Tiberius in the midst of his victories. divided into four classes-nobles, freemen, freedFrom this time forth the Romans ceased their men or vassals, and slaves. The king or chief was attempts to conquer Germany, and contented them-elected from among the nobles; but his power was selves with repelling the incursions which the tribes very limited, and the government of the several made on their frontiers, and endeavouring by their tribes seems to have been democratic rather than influence to foster the intestine disturbances which monarchical. were perpetually generated through the ambition and jealousy of rival leaders, such as Arminius, Marbodius, and the Goth Catualda. After the murder of Arminius by his own people, the power of the Cherusci declined, while the Longobardi and Catti began to assert a recognised preponderance among the neighbouring tribes. Occasional encounters took place between the people of Central Germany and the legions who guarded the wellprotected Roman boundary-line, which extended from the Rhine to the Taunus, and from thence to the Danube; and from time to time the Batavii and other warlike tribes of the north and northwest, who, like them, had been brought into partial dependence on the Romans, rose in formidable insurrection; but after Trajan had restored order and strengthened the forts, peace remained undisturbed in the north till the beginning of the 3d c., while, with the exception of the sanguinary war of the Marcomanni and Quadi under Aurelius Antoninus in the year 166 A. D., there was a similar absence of hostilities in the south. But with the 3d c. the tide of war turned, and the Romans were now compelled to defend their own empire from the inroads of the numerous Germanic tribes, foremost among whom stood the powerful confederacies of the Alemanni and Franks. In their track followed, during the next two centuries, successive hordes of the Vandals, Suevi, Heruli, Goths, and Longobards, who soon formed for themselves states and principalities on the ruins of the old Roman provinces. From this period till the establishment of the western empire in the person of Charlemagne, the history of Germany is a blank; but the condition of the country when he entered on the possession of his German patrimony, shewed that since the retirement of the Romans the lesser tribes had become gradually absorbed in the larger, for on his accession the land was held by a few great nations only, as the Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Suabians, and Bavarians, whose leaders exercised sovereign power within their own territories, and in return for military services, parcelled out their lands to their followers. The knowledge which we possess of the habits and government of the ancient Germans is principally derived from the Commentaries of Cæsar, and the Germania' of Tacitus; and imperfect as these sources of information are, they are infinitely less contradictory than the subsequent records of the earliest Christian times. According to the Roman historians, the Germans were a people of high stature, fair complexion, and red or yellow hair, endowed with great bodily strength, and distinguished for an indomitable love of liberty. The The religion of the Germans, which is shrouded in great obscurity, points, like their language, to their eastern origin, and was based upon Asiatic myths of the creation of the world, and the existence of gods having the forms and attributes of a perfect humanity. Their conceptions of these mythical beings were modified by the local colouring which they received from association with new scenes, and through the lapse of time; and hence the different tribes had all their special gods or demigods, who were often their own leaders or chiefs, to whom the attributes of the god to whose worship they were most partial were ascribed. It is generally said that the Germans had neither temples nor statues. Both Cæsar and Tacitus expressly affirm this, but it cannot be regarded as literally true, for Tacitus himself mentions a temple of a goddess Tanfana among the Marsians; and at a later period, we find Christian missionaries exhorting the Germans to change their pagan temples into Christian churches, while we also read of the destruction of pagan idols. Nevertheless, the religion of the Germans was mainly carried on in the open air-in groves and forests, and on heaths and mountains. Although a priestly order also existed among the Germans, yet each master of a household performed religious services for himself and his family within his own homestead. A knowledge of the will of the gods and the events of the future was sought by divination from observations of the flight of birds, the rushing of waters, and other similar signs, in the interpretation of which women were thought to be especially skilled. Belief in a future life, and in an abode after death for those who had deserved well in this life, was cherished among the Germanic races, who had a strong faith in retributive justice, whose sway they believed would be extended over the gods by involving them in a universal annihilating conflict as the punishment of their evil deeds, after which a new world was to arise guarded by a pure and perfect race of gods. In addition to the higher deities, the Germans peopled every portion of space with a class of subordinate beings who pervaded the earth, air, and water, in the shape of elves, nixes, kobolds, dwarfs, and giants; while Nornes and Valkuries stood apart from either grade of spiritual existence as the representatives of destiny like the Moira and Parca of the Greeks and Romans.-See Kuhn, Zur ältesten Gesch. d. indogerman. Völker (Berlin, 1850); Wackernagel, Familienleben d. Germanen (Freibr. 1846); Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie GERMANICUS CESAR-GERMANTOWN. (1844); Müller, Gesch. und System d. altdeutsch. Religion (1844). GERMANICUS CESAR, a distinguished Roman general, belonging to the imperial family, was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus, and of Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, and niece of Augustus. He was born 15 B. C., in the month of September. In accordance with the desire of Augustus, who had even thought of making him his successor, he was adopted in the year 4 A.D. by Tiberius, whom he accompanied in the war waged against the Pannonians and Dalmatians, for the purpose of securing the German frontiers after the defeat of Varus. After having been consul in 12 A. D., he was appointed in the following year to the command of the eight legions on the Rhine. On the death of Augustus, in 14 A. D., the soldiers revolted, demanding higher pay, and a shorter period of service. G. hastened from Gaul (where he happened to be at the time) to remind them of their duty. The soldiers, who almost idolised him for his frank and generous disposition, urged him to seize upon the supreme power. G., however, was incapable of treachery, and declared that he would rather die than forfeit his allegiance. He, however, granted their demands, though his colleague, A. Cacina, secretly massacred the ringleaders at night. G. now led the legions over the Rhine below Wesel, attacked the Marsi during a nocturnal festival, and destroyed their celebrated temple of Tanfana. In 15 A.D., he made a second inroad into Germany. Proceeding from Metz into the country of the Catti, he destroyed their chief town of Mattium (Maden, near Gudensberg), slaughtering the entire inhabitants, young and old. On his return, his assistance was implored by the ambassadors of Segestes (always a firm ally of the Romans), who was besieged by his son-in-law, Arminius, the conqueror of Varus. This was at once given, and Thusnelda, the heroic wife of Arminius, fell into the hands of the Roman general. Arminius, burning with anger and shame, now roused the Cherusci and all the neighbouring tribes to war. G., in consequence, commenced a third campaign. He divided his army into three divisions. The main body of the infantry were led by Cæcina through the country of the Bructeri, the cavalry under another general marched through Friesland, while G. himself sailed with a fleet through the Zuydersee into the German Ocean, and proceeded up the river Ems, where he joined the others. The united divisions now laid waste the country in the neighbourhood of the Teutoburg forest, penetrated into its gloomy depths, and gathering up the bones of Varus and his legions, which had lain bleaching there for six long years, A victory gained by Arminius induced G. to make a hasty retreat, during which he lost part of his fleet in a tempest. Cæcina, who retreated by land, sustained severe losses at the hands of the pursuing Germans. Before the fleet of 1000 vessels, which G. had built in Batavia, was equipped, he was recalled over the Rhine in 16 A. D. by news of the beleaguerment of the recently acquired fortress of Aliso, on the Lippe. The Germans were repulsed, and the funeral mound in the forest of Teutoburg, which they had thrown down, was again erected. G. now sailed with his fleet again into the Ems, pressed forward to the Weser, which he crossed, and completely overthrew Arminius in two battles. Nevertheless, he determined to return, and on his way, again lost the greater part of his fleet in a great storm. In order to prevent this event from giving courage to the Germans, he once more, in the same year, marched into the country of the Marsi, and despatched his lieutenant, Silius, against the Catti. buried them with solemn funeral honours. The victories thus achieved were to have been followed up in the succeeding years, but Tiberius, jealous of his glory, recalled him, and feigning good-will, bestowed upon him the honour of a triumph, in which Thusnelda appeared among the captives. To rid himself of G., whose popularity seemed to render him dangerous, Tiberius sent him, in 17 A. D., with extensive authority, to settle affairs in the East, at the same time appointing Piso viceroy of Syria, whose haughty and despotic character everywhere counteracted the influence of Germanicus. G. died at Epidaphne, near Antioch, 9th October, 19 A. D., probably of poison. He was deeply lamented both by the inhabitants of the provinces and the citizens of Rome, whither his ashes were conveyed, and deposited by his wife Agrippina in the mausoleum of Augustus. Agrippina herself and two of her sons were put to death, by order | of Tiberius; her third son, Caligula, was spared. Of the three daughters who survived their father, Agrippina became as remarkable for her vices as her mother had been for her virtues. Besides his splendid generalship, G. was conspicuous for his magnanimity, benevolence, finely cultured understanding, and personal purity of life. He wrote several works of a rhetorical character, which have been lost; but of his poetical works, we possess an epigram, a version of the Phanomena of Aratus, and fragments of a work of the same character, entitled ' Diosemeia, or Prognostica, compiled from Greek sources. G.'s literary remains were first published at Bologna, in 1474. The latest edition is that of Orelli, at the end of his Phædrus (Zurich, 1831). GERMA'NO, SAN or CASINO, as it is now generally called, a beautiful and prosperous town of Italy, at the base of Monte Casino, in the province of Caserta, about 50 miles N.N.W. of Naples. It contains handsome public edifices, and is surrounded by the remains of monuments and buildings of high anta-1 quarian interest; it is built on the site and from the ruins of the ancient Volscian town, Casinum, or Casca. The principal ruins of the ancient Volscian period are a monument, supposed to have been a tomb, an amphitheatre, and a temple. The first is now employed as a church; it is a square building, in the form of a Greek cross, constructed with enor mous squared blocks of stone, on the Cyclopean principle. From its form, it is called the Church, of the Crucifix, or Crocefisso. The second must have been a magnificent building, and it is still in a state of preservation sufficient to convey an idea of its original vast proportions. The third, adjoining the amphitheatre, was probably built in conjunct with it, at the cost of the Volscian matron, Umalis Quadratilla, mentioned by Pliny. The Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, at a couple of miles distance from San G., is one of the most renowned religious communities of Europe. Its foundation by St Benedict dates from 529. It contains one of the most beautiful churches of Italy, an extensive library, and a collection of the most precious documents of the middle ages in its valuable archives The district surrounding San G. is highly cultivated, and beautiful. Pop. about 12,000. copal government of the ancient diocese of Cornwal GERMANS, ST, formerly the seat of the epis wall. It stands on the slope of a hill, on a branch of England, now a small village in the county of Coand 21 miles E.S.E. of Bodmin. It is notable only the river Lynher, 10 miles above Plymouth Sound, for its fine parish church, which has an excelest Norman west front, and the towers of which are hung with ivy and fern. Pop. (1871) of parish, 2675 GERMANTOWN, formerly a post-borough of North America, in the state of Pennsylvania, about |