GIRGEH-GIRONDISTS.

GIRONNÉ GIURGEVO.

Description of the City and Milanese Territory from the Early Ages. These Memoirs, in 4 vols., embrace the period from the destruction of the Lombard domination, or establishment of the Franks in Italy, down to the opening of the 14th century. In three subsequent books, he descends to 1447, when the House of Visconti was elevated to sovereign rule in Milan. The work is considered by G.'s countrymen a master-piece of learning, impartiality, and judgment. Much of the history is based upon the evidence of coins, seals, documents, and monuments of the various ages. Milan proudly recognised G.'s patriotic labour by appointing him state historian, and, at the request of the Empress Maria-Theresa, he collected materials for four additional books, with the view of bringing the work down to the 16th century. Before achieving this design, he died of apoplexy on Christmas Eve, in 1780. G. was distinguished for active benevolence as well as learning. likewise cultivated with enthusiasm both poetry

He

Fauchet, Duperret, Carra, Lehardy, Duchâtel, Gardien, Boileau, Beauvais, Vigée, Duprat, Mainvielle, and Antiboul, were sentenced to death, and, with the exception of Valaze, who stabbed himself on hearing his sentence pronounced, all perished by the guillotine. On their way to the Place de Grève, in the true spirit of French republicanism, they sang the Marseillaise. Coustard, Manuel, Cussy, Noel, Kersaint, Rabaut St Etienne, Bernard, and Mazuyer, were likewise afterwards guillotined. Biroteau, Grangeneuve, Guadet, Salles, and Barbaroux ascended the scaffold at Bordeaux; Lidon and Chambon, at Brives; Valady, at Périgueux; Dechézeau, at Rochelle. Rebecqui drowned himself at Marseille, Pétion and Buzot stabbed themselves, and Condorcet poisoned himself. Sixteen months later, after the fall of the Terrorists, the outlawed members, including the G. Lanjuinais, Defermon, Pontécoulant, Louvet, Isnard, and La Rivière, again appeared in the Convention. A rather flattering picture of the party has been drawn by Lamartine, in his Histoire des Girondins (8 vols., Paris, 1847). and music. GIRONNÉ, GYRONNÉ, GYRONNY (Latin, GIULIO PIPPI, surnamed 'ROMANO,' from the gyrus, a circle), terms used in Heraldry to indi-place of his birth, was born at Rome in 1492, and cate that the Field (q. v.) is divided into six, eight, became one of Raphael's most distinguished and or more triangular portions, of different tinctures, beloved pupils. His excellence as an architect and the points of the triangles all meeting in the centre engineer almost equalled his genius as a painter. G. of the shield. Nisbet (i. 28) objects to this as assisted Raphael in the execution of several of his a vulgar mode of blazoning, and, in speaking of finest works, and by special desire of the great the paternal ensign of the ancient surname of master, he was intrusted with the completion of all Campbell,' he says (p. 31) that it is composed his unfinished designs after his death. He likewise of the four principal partition lines, parti, coupé, inherited a great portion of Raphael's wealth. The traunché, taillé, which divide the field into eight works executed by G., in imitation of Raphael, gironal segments, ordinarily blazoned with us reflect so wonderfully, not alone the style and girony of eight, or, and sable.' The triangle in character, but the sentiment and spirit of the dexter-chief has been called a Giron or Gyron. original, that in many instances uncertainty has arisen as to the hand from which they emanated; while, on the contrary, the more original creations of G. are deficient in the ideal grace of his master, and display rather breadth, and power of treatment, and boldness of imagination, than poetical refinement or elevation. Unlike Raphael, the chief excellence of G. does not lie in his conception of the divine or Christian, but rather of the classical ideal. G. died in 1546.

6

GIRVAN, a seaport town and burgh of barony, on the west coast of Scotland, is beautifully situated at the mouth of the river Girvan, in the county of Ayr, and about 21 miles south-west of the town of that name. It is now the terminus of the Glasgow and South-Western Railway, and owns considerable tonnage in shipping. The harbour has been much improved of late, and a considerable trade, especially in the shipment of coal, is carried on betwixt G. and Belfast, from which it is distant about 65 miles. The valley of the Girvan is one of the most beautiful and best cultivated districts in the south-west of Ayrshire, and abounds with coal and with limestone. The land is of the richest description. The town is situated opposite the celebrated Ailsa Craig,' and has been much frequented of late in the summer season by parties in quest of sea-bathing, for which the coast is admirably adapted. Pop. (1871) 4776.

The principal architectural works designed by G. were executed at Mantua, during his lengthened residence at the court of Duke Frederick Gonzaga. The drainage of the marshes surrounding Mantua, and the securing the city from the frequent inundations of the rivers Po and Mincio, attest his skill as an engineer; while his genius as an architect found free scope in the restoration and adornment of many of the chief public edifices of Mantua, and especially in the erection of the splendid palace known as GISORS, a town of France, in the department Il Palazzo del Te, which he also embellished with of Eure, situated on the river Epte, 33 miles mythological frescoes, and a profusion of exquisite north-east of Evreux, and on the high-road from decorations. Many of G.'s finest pictures passed Paris to Rouen. Pop. 3386. Here a battle took into the possession of Charles I. of England, who place, 10th October 1198, between the French and English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who commanded the English, gave, as the parole,' or watchword of the day, Dieu et mon Droit (God and my Right), and ever since, the expression has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

GIULI'NI, GIORGIO, a learned historian and antiquary, was born at Milan in 1714. He studied law at the university of Padua, and received the degree of Doctor at an early age. G. devoted his decided antiquarian genius to researches into the monuments and remains of his native land; and after twenty years of patient labour, he published a valuable historical work, entitled Memoirs concerning the Government of Milan, with

purchased, in 1629, the celebrated collection of the Dukes of Mantua. Several of them are now confinest of all, a Nativity,' was sold to France, and tained in the Hampton Court Gallery; but the now adorns the Louvre. The Naples gallery of Capi d'Opera possesses a Holy Family by G., called the Madonna della Gatta,' and considered the greatest of his pictures; it is strongly imbued with the spirit and influence of Raphael. The Loggia of frescoes executed by G.; and in the Palazzo Raphael, in the Vatican, also contains some fine Farnese there is a grand frieze attributed to him.

GIURGE VO, an important trading town of Wallachia, is situated on the left bank of the Danube, directly opposite Rustchuk, and 40 miles south-south-west from Bucharest, of which town

GIUSTI-GLACIER.

it is the port. It was originally the Genoese symbol of his country; Gingillino, a master-piece settlement of St George. It is the great land- of sarcasm, portraying the ignoble career of the ing-place for steamers in Wallachia. A bridge sycophant, whose supple back and petty diplomacy across a narrow channel connects G. with Slobodse, finally secure for him the highest distinctions; I an island in the Danube, on which stands a Re Travicello, or King Log, the subject of which fortified castle. Here the Turks defeated the is indicated by the title; Il Brindisi di Girella, Russians, 7th July 1854. Pop. 11,000. or the Weathercock's Toast, one of his best pieves, dedicated to the suggestive name of Talleyrand; and the Dies Ira, or Funeral Oration of the Em peror Francis I. The only authorised and correct edition of his works is that published at Florence in 1852 by Le Monnier.

GIU'STI, GIUSEPPE, the most celebrated and popular of the modern poets and satirists of Italy, was born in 1809, at Pescia, in the vicinity of Florence. Sprung from an influential Tuscan family, G. was early destined to the bar, and at Pistoja and Lucca commenced the preliminary studies, which were completed at the university of Pisa, where he obtained his degree of Doctor of Laws. Sustained earnestness of study seems to have formed no feature in G.'s collegiate course, whose natural bent rather inclined him to a genial parti- | cipation in the freaks and social pleasures of his companions than to the erudite investigation of the Pandects. On quitting Pisa, G. was domiciled at Florence with the eminent advocate Capoquadri, who subsequently became Minister of Justice, and here he first attempted poetry. Lyrical compositions of the romantic school, evincing both elevated and nervous thought, were his earliest efforts; but he speedily comprehended that satire, not idealism, was his true forte. In a pre-eminent degree, G. possesses the requirements of a great lyrical satirist-terse, clear, and brilliant, he depicts, alternately with the poignant regret of the humanitarian, and the mocking laugh of the ironist, the decorous shams and conventional vices of his age. His impartiality only lends a keener sting to his denunciation. The stern flagellator of tyrants, he is no less merciless in stigmatising those whose pliant servility helps to perpetuate the abasement of their country. Nor does he adulate the people, whose champion he avowedly is, and whose follies and inconsistencies he indicates with the faithfulness of a watchful friend. The writings of G. exercised a positive political influence. When the functions of the press were ignored, and freedom of thought was treason, his flaming verses in manuscript were throughout all Italy in general circulation, fanning the hatred of foreign despots, and powerfully assisted in preparing the revolutionary insurrection of 1848. Then, for the first time, did G. discard the pseudonym of 'The Anonymous Tuscan,' and append his name to a volume of verses bearing on the events and aims of the times. All his compositions are short pieces, rarely blemished with personalities, and written in the purest form of the popular Tuscan dialect. The elegant familiarity of idiom which constitutes one of their chief and original beauties in the eyes of their native readers, presents great difficulties to foreigners, and still greater to the translator. G.'s writings are not only Italian in spirit and wit, but essentially Tuscan. A reverent student of Dante, G. himself often reaches an almost Dantesque sublimity in the higher outbursts of his scornful wrath, while he stands alone in the lighter play of ironical wit. In politics, an enlightened and moderate liberal, averse alike to bureaucracy and mobocracy, G. was also beloved in private life for his social qualities, and his loving and gentle spirit. He died in 1850, aged 41, in the dwelling of his attached friend, the Marquis Gino Capponi, at Florence; and the throng of citizens who followed him to the grave, in the teeth of Austrian prohibition, attested eloquently the repute he enjoyed in life. His most celebrated pieces are entitled Stivale, or the History of a Boot (Italy), a humorous narration of all the misfits, ill-usage, and patching allotted to this unfortunate down-trodden

GIUSTINIA'NI, an illustrious Italian race, to which the republics of Venice and Genoa owed more than one doge. One of the palatial residences of Rome was erected towards the end of the 16th c. by a descendant of the family, the Marquis Giustiniani. The site he selected for the palace was a portion of the ruins of Nero's baths, and on its completion he enriched it with a magnificent private gallery of paintings, and a fine collection of sculptures. He also formed a museum of antiquities, the treasures of which were discovered on the spot. In 1807, the G. family conveyed the collection of paintings to Paris, where they disposal of the greater part by auction, and privately sold the remainder, consisting of 170 fine paintings, to the artist Bonnechose, who, in his turn, resold them to the king of Prussia. This fragment of the famous Giustiniani Gallery now enriches the Berlin Museum, and a very few of its former treasures are still to be found in the Giustiniani palace at Rome.

GIVET, a town of France, and a fortress of the first rank, is situated in the department of Ardennes, on both banks of the Meuse, close to the border of Belgium, and 145 miles north-east of Paris. The town consists of three districts-Charlemont, Givet St Hilaire, and Givet Notre Dame, all lying within the line of the fortifications. It is well situated in a commercial point of view, is regularly built, has handsome squares, a good port, barracks, a milltary hospital, and manufactures of leather, for which G. is famous, of white-lead, clay-pipes, sealing-wax, and nails; breweries, marble-works, and a zine and copper foundry are also carried on. Pop. 4397.

GIVORS, a town of France, in the department of Rhone, is situated on the right bank of the river of that name, 14 miles south of Lyon. Bottles and: window glass are here extensively manufactured, and a trade in ironstone and coal is carried on Pop. (1872) SS86.

GLACIER is a name given to immense masses of ice, which are formed above the snow-line, on lofty mountains, and descend into the valleys to a greater or less distance, often encroaching on the cultivate regions. The materials of the glaciers are derived | from the snow which falls during summer as well as winter on the summits of high mountains. Every fresh fall of snow adds a little to the height of the mountain, and, were there no agents at work to get rid of it, the mountains would be gradually rising to an indefinite elevation. Avalanches and glaciers, bowever, carry the snow into warmer regions, where it is reduced to water; in the one, the snow slips ir t the steep mountain slopes, and rushes rapidly down; in the other, it gradually descends, and is converted into ice in its progress. The snow which forms the glacier at its origin has a very different appearance | and consistence from the ice of which it consists at its lower termination. The minute state of divise of the ice, in its snow condition, and the quantity of air interspersed through it, gives it its characteristic white colour. Two causes operate in causing change into ice: first, pressure expels the air, by

thus

GLACIER.

GLACIER.

of regelation, re-establish its continuous solid condition, if the particles of ice operated on were kept in close contact. These facts he applied to the motion of glaciers, asserting that the pressure of the parts of a glacier on each other, in a downward direction, produced by gravitation, was more powerful than the attraction which held the particles of the ice together-that, consequently, the ice was ruptured, to permit the motion of the glacier, the particles being, however, speedily reunited by regelation. The supposed viscous condition of ice he believed to be refuted by the fact that, whenever the glacier is subjected to tension, as in passing over a cascade, it does not yield by stretching, but always by breaking, so as to form crevasses. This theory, equally with that of Forbes, explains the known phenomena of glaciers, while the advantage is claimed for it of not drawing upon our imagination as to a required condition of the ice, but, by experiment, exhibiting ice from known causes producing effects on the small scale similar to those produced in nature on the large. Forbes, however, maintains (Occasional Papers, &c., 1859) that all that is peculiar to Tyndall's theory was included in his own; and that the facts discovered and expounded by Faraday in 1850 had already been used by him as part of his theory in 1846. He says that his viscous theory included the notion of an infinity of minute rents; that it also embraces the substitution of the finite sliding of the internally bruised surfaces over one another;' and that it includes the reconsolidation of the bruised glacial substance into a coherent whole by pressure acting upon ice, softened by imminent thaw.'

Professor Tyndall re-introduces and re-asserts the gravitation theory of De Saussure as in part the cause of the glacier's motion; but the phenomena which he considers produced by a sliding motion of the whole mass over its bed-viz., the polishing and grooving of the rock below-can be produced by a substance whose motion is the result of a yielding of its parts, if that substance has sufficient consistence to retain firmly imbedded in its lower surface portions of rock to act as polishers, and it cannot be doubted that the ice of glaciers has such a consistency.

Where two glaciers unite, the trails of rock on the inner margins unite also, and form a single ridge, which runs along the middle of the large trunk glacier, and is called a medial moraine. It is evident that the number of the medial moraines must thus depend upon the number of the branch glaciers, and must indeed be invariably one less. The glacier terminates amidst a mass of stones and débris, which having been carried down on its surface, are finally deposited by its melting at its extremity, forming there a terminal moraine. Sometimes a glacier decreases in size, either withdrawing from the valley, and leaving the terminal moraine as a barren waste of rocks, or melting on its superficies throughout its length, and depositing its lateral moraines as a ridge of débris on either side at some height above it on the mountain. The existence of such collections of rocks is plain evidence of the former position and altitude of glaciers, and even of their former occurrence in countries where they are now unknown.

It has been stated, that when the glacier is subjected to tension, the continuity of its parts is destroyed, and fissures, called crevasses, are formed. In passing over a brow on the channel, the ice invariably yields; at first, a deep crack is formed, which gradually widens until a fissure or chasm is produced across the glacier. Transverse crevasses disappear when the glacier reaches a level portion of its bed; the pressure bringing the walls again together, the chasm is closed up. Longitudinal crevasses are produced when the glacier escapes from a confined channel, and spreads itself over a wider area. The spreading of the margins causes a tension in the body of the glacier, which yields, and longitudinal fissures are formed. These occasionally rend the terminal front of a glacier. The smaller marginal crevasses are formed from the tension of the ice, produced by the normal motion of the glacier being retarded by the friction against the sides of its channel. The motion of the glacier is gradually accelerated from the margin inwards, consequently the lines of greatest tension are inclined downwards and towards the centre, more or less, in proportion to the rapidity of the motion. The crevasses formed by the yielding of the ice are at right angles to the lines of tension, and consequently point up the glacier.

Some of the more remarkable phenomena of glaciers remain to be noticed. The surface of the glacier does not long retain the purity of the snow The veined structure is apparently the result of¦ from which it is derived, but is speedily loaded pressure. The veins consist of blue ice penetrating with long ridges of débris called moraines. The the white mass of the glacier, and occur either in mountains which rise on either side of the valley irregular directions, or producing a regularly lamboccupied by the glacier are continually suffering ated structure. The blue veins are portions of loss from the action of the rain, disruption by ice from which the air-bubbles have been expelled, frost, and the impulse of avalanches. The mate- and which are consequently more compact than the rials thus liberated find their way to the glacier, general substance of the glacier. The pressure 18 and form a line of rock and rubbish on its two exerted in three directions, producing veins which borders, of greater or less size, dependent on the are complementary to the three kinds of crevasses friability or compactness of the adjacent mountains. which have just been noticed. When the glacier The lateral moraines often reach to a great height, passes over a level, or perhaps a gently risag as much as forty or fifty feet above the level of the channel, transverse veins are formed; when it glacier. The whole ridge appears to consist of pressed through a narrower channel, longitudinal débris, but it is really a ridge of ice with a covering veins are produced; and the pressure at the margins of foreign materials, which, by protecting the under-produced by the retardation of the flow by friction lying ice from the heat which they radiate and only partially transmit, leave the moraine as a more and more elevated ridge, while the surface of the glacier is speedily melting. Glacier tables have a similar origin. A large and isolated mass of rock, resting on the glacier, protects the ice below; and as the glacier melts, it leaves the rock poised on the summit of an icy column. As the rays of the sun play on the table all day obliquely, the column is gradually melted from under the rock, until it slips off, and begins to form another table; while the unprotected column speedily melts and disappears.

causes the formation of marginal veins in the lines of greatest pressure, that is, at right angles to the marginal crevasses.

The melting of the ice on the surface of the glacier produces streams, whose course is often Broken by crevasses, down which the water descends | finding egress at last through the cavernous mouth at the termination of the glacier, where it issues after being increased by other streams, which have by similar channels reached the bottom, as well as by the melting of the ice from the contact of the earth. The rushing water wears a shaft of greater